Protuberances (known as Protuberanzen in German, derived from the Latin word protubero meaning “blowing up”) are compact accumulations of cold substances that rise and remain suspended above the Sun’s surface due to the presence of its magnetic field.
The exploration of protuberances began with the occurrence of the Solar eclipse on July 8, 1842, when Arago, Erie, and other astronomers observed them as bright pink protrusions encircling the darkened disk of the Moon. While viewing the solar eclipse on August 18, 1868, Pierre Jansen, independently from J. Lockyer, employed a fresh technique to observe prominences outside of the eclipse and deduced that they were composed of gas. Valuable knowledge regarding solar prominences and their rapid transformations was acquired through the use of cinematography, employing the method of slow-motion photography. Currently, the processes taking place within the solar atmosphere are observed and researched by satellites and space stations.
Prominences can be easily seen during total solar eclipses. When there is no eclipse, they can be observed using specialized instruments like prominence spectroscopes, interference filters, extra-eclipse coronographs (such as the Lio coronograph), and chromospheric telescopes. When projected onto the solar disk, prominences appear as dark fibers.
Fibers are elongated dark structures that are clearly visible in the solar chromosphere in the H-alpha hydrogen red line. They are formations of dense and colder plasma that are held above the solar surface by magnetic field loops.
Sorting
Protuberances exhibit a unique structure composed of constantly moving plasma filaments and clots. They can take on various forms, which can be classified based on their morphology or dynamics.
Based on the type of prominence, velocity, and specific movement patterns, protuberances can be categorized into the following classes:
- Quiescent – these protuberances have slow matter movement and minimal changes in form. They can exist for weeks or even months and are observed across all heliographic latitudes. They can be found far from sunspot groups or near them during the later stages of their development. The kinetic temperature of quiescent protuberances is 15000°.
- Active prominences are characterized by rapid movements of matter flows from the prominence to the photosphere, as well as between prominences. Even quiet prominences can go through an active stage that can last from several minutes to several days. This stage can end with the complete disappearance of the prominence or its transformation into an eruptive prominence. The kinetic temperature of active prominences is approximately 25,000°.
- Eruptive prominences, also known as eruptive prominences, resemble massive fountains that can reach heights of up to 1.7 million kilometers above the surface of the Sun. The movement of matter in these prominences is fast, with speeds reaching hundreds of kilometers per second. Additionally, they can change their shape rapidly. As the prominence rises, it weakens and eventually dissipates. Some eruptive prominences have been observed to undergo sudden changes in the velocity of individual clots. These types of prominences have a short lifespan.
- Coronal, or loop-shaped phenomena, occur above the chromosphere in the form of small clouds, which then merge into a single cloud. From this cloud, individual jets of luminous matter descend to the chromosphere. This entire phenomenon lasts for several hours. Large prominences and energetic coronal ejections are quite rare and occur more frequently near the maximum of the 11-year solar cycle, when there are many sunspots and other active phenomena.
A classification of prominences has been developed at KRAO, taking into account the nature of matter motion and the shape of prominences:
- Type I (which is uncommon) manifests as either a cloud or a plume of smoke. Its formation begins at the base of the substance and spirals upwards to significant heights. The velocity of the substance can reach up to 700 km/sec. When the prominence reaches a height of approximately 100,000 km, fragments of the prominence break away and fall back along paths resembling magnetic field lines.
- Type II takes the form of curved jets that originate and terminate at the surface of the Sun. These nodes and jets move as if they are following magnetic force lines. The clusters’ motion speeds range from a few tens to 100 km/sec. At altitudes of several hundred thousand kilometers, the jets and clusters gradually dissipate.
- Type III resembles a shrub or a tree and can grow to immense dimensions. The clots within it move in a disordered manner, reaching speeds of up to tens of km/sec.
Theory
At present, there is still a lack of a comprehensive theory that can fully explain the diverse range of phenomena associated with solar prominences. It is widely acknowledged that, apart from the influence of gravity, electric and magnetic forces significantly contribute to this phenomenon.
Although the chemical makeup of prominences aligns with that of the reversing layer, the physical conditions within them differ significantly. In the spectrum of calm prominences, the lines of hydrogen and singly ionized calcium dominate, while in prominences associated with sunspots (such as most eruptive ones), the lines of various metals are also prominent. The width, intensity, and other characteristics of these lines suggest that protuberances have temperatures ranging from 6,000 to 8,000 Kelvin and a particle concentration of (1-5)*10 10 cm -3 . The fact that protuberances exist for extended periods of time indicates that their substance is held in place by magnetic forces. Spectroscopic observations have confirmed the presence of magnetic fields in prominences, with strengths reaching several hundred ersteds.
Fascinating information
- The video (download 4.0 MB MPEG) demonstrates the eruption of one of the most renowned prominences, known as “Granddaddy” (Granddaddy)” and observed in 1945 during the peak of the solar cycle.
- During June 1946, astronomers witnessed the highest prominence ever recorded on the Sun. It reached a height of 1.7 million kilometers (Sergei Yazev, director of the astronomical observatory of the IGU).
- Udin W. and Verma V. K. reported on January 25, 1991 (close to the maximum of the solar cycle) that they observed maximum velocities of prominence eruption reaching approximately 1280 km/sec, although it is possible that this refers to the velocity of the wave rather than the matter. (IngentaConnect)
- The SOHO satellite captured two simultaneous prominences on opposite sides of the Sun’s disk for the first time on March 18, 2003. These prominences disappeared after six hours. Astrophysicists are still investigating whether this occurrence was random or dependent. (SciTecLibrary.ru April 2, 2003)
- On April 17, 2009, the TESIS space observatory, aboard the Russian Koronas-Foton satellite, observed the ejection of a massive prominence during the Sun’s deep minimum. This prominence was 50 times the diameter of the Earth and was expelled into interplanetary space (TESIS, download movie 4.0 MB (WMV)).
Sources
Notes
- ↑ The prominence spectroscope, which was specially designed to observe prominences at the edge of the solar disk, had lost its scientific significance by the 1970s.
A breathtaking 140-megapixel depiction of the Sun featuring a massive prominence
Andrew McCarthy and Jason Hansel, two esteemed astrophotographers, joined forces to produce an image of the Sun. The outcome of their collaboration is an awe-inspiring 140-megapixel portrait of our celestial body.
During a five-day period, the photographers managed to capture the Sun, resulting in over 90,000 images of the star. These images were then merged into a single portrait, showcasing the stunning surface of our Sun and the dynamic nature of its various processes.
Upon closer inspection, one can observe a vortex-like structure in the upper right section of the solar disk. This structure is actually a massive prominence, which garnered the attention of amateur astronomers worldwide during its recent formation.
A “solar whirlwind” developed over a period of three days and eventually reached a height of 120,000 kilometers. To gain a better understanding of its magnitude, this is equivalent to the diameter of Saturn or nearly ten times the diameter of our Earth. Subsequently, the prominence descended to the surface of the sun. During its descent, the prominence fragmented into moon-sized pieces, accompanied by a significant release of energy and matter.
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Solar activity refers to a collection of dynamic and diverse phenomena occurring in the atmosphere of the Sun. One of its manifestations is the presence of distinct filaments within the magnetic field of the solar atmosphere, known as prominences. These prominences become visible at the edge of the solar disk.
Understanding Protuberances
In 1185, the first recorded observation of peculiar formations during a total solar eclipse was made. Detailed investigations into these formations began in 1842. They were later named protuberances, derived from the Latin word “protubero,” meaning to swell.
Current research has revealed that protuberances are enormous structures made of solar plasma. These massive eruptions rise above the Sun’s surface along the lines of its magnetic field and remain suspended there for a period of time. Some protuberances can linger in the vicinity of the Sun for months without undergoing significant changes in shape.
Prominences are fundamentally
Despite extensive scientific research, there is currently no comprehensive theory to explain the diverse nature of prominences and the various phenomena associated with them. Essentially, natural prominences are dark fibers that can be clearly observed in the Sun’s chromosphere. They have a denser and colder structure compared to the surrounding plasma, and their chemical composition reflects the composition of the layer from which they originate. However, their internal physical state is such that the spectrum of some prominences is dominated by hydrogen lines, while others exhibit various metal lines. The longevity of prominences suggests that magnetic forces play a significant role in holding their matter together.
What is the manifestation of prominences?
Prominences on the Sun are observed as bright structures that jut out from its disk. These formations appear darker in contrast to the surrounding matter, as their plasma has a lower temperature.
Compared to the hot corona, prominences are denser and colder. They rise from the Sun’s surface, release some of their material, and eventually descend and vanish. Some prominences can linger in the corona for months, while others, moving at high speeds, persist for weeks. Occasionally, individual prominences with immense velocity undergo sudden explosions.
What is the size of prominences?
Prominences on the Sun are known for their incredible size. Typical examples of these formations can reach heights of up to 40,000 kilometers, with widths of around 200,000 kilometers. There are even instances where prominences have reached heights of 800,000 kilometers. Scientists have observed record-breaking prominences that exceed 3 million kilometers in size. In August 2010, a massive prominence eruption in the shape of a horseshoe was observed from a spacecraft for a duration of 30 hours.
What are solar prominences?
Solar prominences come in various forms. Depending on their appearance and rate of movement, they can be classified into the following types:
- Quiet prominences, which exhibit slow movement and gradual changes in shape, lasting for several weeks or even months;
- Active prominences, characterized by rapid movement of matter and shorter lifespan ranging from a few minutes to several hours;
- Coronal loop prominences, which start as small clouds and eventually merge into a single large cloud, lasting for several hours;
- Eruptive or bursting prominences, resembling massive fountains that erupt rapidly, change shape, and disappear quickly.
There are three types of formations depending on their shape and the movement of matter within them:
- Formations resembling spiraling jets of smoke or clouds that can reach great heights.
- Curved jets and knots that protrude from the solar surface. These formations typically originate and dissipate along magnetic force lines.
- Large formations that resemble trees or shrubs. The substance within these formations moves chaotically at speeds of only a few tens of km/s.
How to view solar prominences?
Solar prominences are a manifestation of the Sun’s activity and can be viewed during a total solar eclipse, although this is a rare occurrence. To overcome this rarity, scientists have developed spectral devices that simulate artificial eclipses. These telescopes, made from a specialized glass without microbubbles, are equipped with a black disk that mimics the Moon. During the observation process, the disk slowly moves across the Sun, allowing the instruments to only see the light emitted from the Sun’s corona.
Observers are treated to a breathtaking sight – the mesmerizing spectacle of prominences dancing on the surface of the Sun. Beyond the silhouette of the moon, one can clearly make out intricate formations of vibrant pink hues, resembling either fiery flames or colossal clouds erupting from the Sun’s uppermost layers.
Coronal arc-shaped prominences can be observed during the peak of the Sun’s 11-year activity. This rare and incredibly beautiful phenomenon takes the form of a massive cloud with descending jets, appearing in the Sun’s corona above its chromosphere.
For astronomers, the phenomena occurring in the solar corona have long remained a mystery. Protuberances, as they are called, were associated with the secrets held by our star, the Sun. It is only in modern times, with the help of satellites and space stations, that most of these mysteries have been uncovered.
There are still countless discoveries waiting to be made, both in the vast expanse of the universe and within our very own solar system.
A stunning portrait of the Sun, capturing a giant prominence, with a resolution of 140 megapixels.
Renowned astrophotographers Andrew McCarthy and Jason Hansel came together to produce a magnificent depiction of the Sun. The outcome of their partnership is a breathtaking 140-megapixel portrayal of our celestial body.
The Sun was photographed for a period of five days, resulting in over 90,000 images of the star. These images were then combined to create a stunning portrait that showcases the surface of our beloved Sun and its dynamic processes.
Upon closer inspection, observers will notice a mesmerizing vortex-like structure situated in the upper right section of the solar disk. This structure is actually a massive prominence, which attracted the attention of amateur astronomers worldwide as it formed last week.
A “solar vortex” developed over a period of three days, eventually reaching a towering height of 120,000 kilometers. To provide some perspective, that’s equivalent to the diameter of Saturn or nearly ten times the diameter of our Earth. Eventually, the prominence descended back to the surface of the sun. During its descent, it fragmented into individual pieces roughly the size of the Moon, accompanied by a vigorous release of energy and matter.
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This article provides an explanation of a solar prominence, its potential dangers to individuals, and the various indicators used to classify it.
The Sun
Life has thrived on our planet for nearly four billion years, and there are numerous factors that have contributed to its origin and continuation. These include the climate, atmospheric gas composition, the planet’s rotational period, its gravitational pull, and, of course, its distance from the Sun. The Earth is situated in what scientists refer to as the habitable zone, which is an optimal distance from the Sun that allows for the comfortable existence of a wide range of biological species. The fate of planets that are located too close to their central star can be observed by looking at Mercury – a scorched and desolate world.
It is evident that these factors together create a highly intricate and intricate system, where each component must maintain its fragile equilibrium for the progression of life on our planet to persist.
Outgrowths
However, it is important to acknowledge that there exist numerous apparent and concealed hazards that can disrupt the delicate equilibrium of this system. Moreover, on the Sun, there frequently occur phenomena that pose a threat to all forms of life, not solely to humans. An illustrative example of such a phenomenon is the solar or magnetic storms. These disturbances often negatively impact individuals who are sensitive to changes in weather conditions, as well as various types of equipment. During these storms, prominences detach from the Sun and propel towards nearby celestial bodies. Thankfully, the majority of these prominences are relatively small in size, and therefore, the likelihood of tragic consequences is significantly reduced. In this article, we will delve into the dangers associated with prominences and explore their characteristics in greater detail.
Explanation
Protuberances refer to dense condensations of colder matter compared to the Sun’s surface. These structures rise above the star’s surface during periods of activity and are held in place by its magnetic field. Essentially, they can be described as massive jets of hot solar matter that are anchored by the gravitational pull of the star. However, during periods of intense solar activity, streams of plasma can erupt from the Sun’s photosphere and travel in various directions, including towards Earth. This phenomenon is known as a magnetic or solar storm.
Description
The following is a brief overview of the product’s features and functionality.
Prominences were first mentioned in scientific literature during a solar eclipse in 1185. However, limited scientific knowledge and technology at the time hindered further study of this phenomenon. It wasn’t until the mid-19th century that prominences were extensively studied. In 1868, Pierre Janssen pioneered a new method of observing prominences without the need for a solar eclipse, leading to the discovery that they exist in a gaseous state.
Given the nature of prominences, their comprehensive study became possible only with the advancements in scientific and technological progress, such as slow motion photography and artificial near-Earth observation satellites.
Solar prominences become easily visible during total solar eclipses. These unique events are observed using specialized equipment such as prominence telescopes, filters, coronographs, and chromospheric telescopes. When projected onto the Sun’s surface, prominences appear as elongated dark fibers of varying thickness. Therefore, ordinary telescopes can only capture the phenomenon of prominences during a total solar eclipse.
Now that we understand what solar prominences are, let’s explore their different types.
Types
Prominences can be described as wispy structures resembling filaments or clusters of plasma in various shapes. They are in constant motion and continuously change their form. Prominences are classified based on their dynamic and morphological features. Let’s explore their classification by appearance, motion characteristics, and speed:
- Calm. In this type, the substance moves at a slower pace. The changes in form occur gradually. Calm prominences typically have a lifespan ranging from a few weeks to several months. They can be observed at all heliographic latitudes, but are most commonly found near sunspots in the advanced stage of development. The temperature of calm prominences is approximately 15,000 degrees Celsius.
- Active. The photo below shows a remarkable phenomenon called an active prominence. What distinguishes this prominence is that plasma streams flow rapidly from the base of the geyser towards the photosphere and between different prominences. These plasma streams reach incredibly high speeds and have a temperature of 25,000 degrees Celsius. Interestingly, many active prominences originate from quiescent ones, but their lifespan is relatively short, lasting from a few minutes to a day.
- Eruptive. When talking about their appearance, these prominences can be compared to massive fountains that are over one and a half million kilometers tall above the surface of our star. The plasma moves at speeds of hundreds of kilometers per hour, and their shape changes rapidly. They have a short lifespan, and as they grow taller, they eventually dissipate completely.
- Loop-shaped prominences are seen as small clouds above the chromosphere. Over time, they often merge into a larger cloud, which then releases streams of glowing gas towards the chromosphere. These phenomena rarely last more than a few hours.
Now we have a better understanding of the solar corona and the various types of prominences it possesses.
The Concept of Emergence
Despite extensive research on solar activity, a comprehensive theory explaining the occurrence of prominences and related phenomena is still lacking. This can be partially attributed to the combined influence of electric and magnetic forces along with the Sun’s gravitational pull.
The chemical composition of a prominence corresponds to the layer from which it originates. However, the composition is often linked to the physical conditions under which the phenomenon exists. For instance, quiet prominences are characterized by hydrogen and ionized calcium lines in their spectrum, while prominences associated with sunspots exhibit prominent lines of various metals.
The substance’s prolonged existence in various forms suggests that it is being retained by the star’s magnetic force, a hypothesis that has been substantiated by multiple spectroscopic observations.
Potential Hazard
As previously discussed, a prominence is a feature of the Sun’s chromosphere and is involved in various physical processes. The main concern lies with those prominences that detach from the surface of the Sun and venture into outer space. Depending on their intensity, these detached prominences can disrupt satellites in Earth’s orbit and pose a threat to the crew of the International Space Station (ISS). Additionally, when interacting with Earth’s magnetosphere, prominences can generate powerful magnetic storms that have negative effects on individuals sensitive to weather changes, as well as interfere with radio communication systems and other electronic devices. Thankfully, prominences with the potential to detach from the Sun’s surface and cause such damage are exceedingly rare.
