How many planets orbit the sun in 3rd grade

Lesson on the topic of “Planets” for 3rd graders at the UMC “Planet of Knowledge”.

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I. Organizational moment of the lesson.

Teacher. People have inhabited the Earth for a long time. In the past, none of them could read or write, so parents would show the stars to their children and draw constellation patterns in the sand with a stick.

The starry sky was the first great book that people learned how to read and understand. And many years later, the science of stars and other celestial bodies, known as astronomy, emerged. The word astronomy comes from the Greek words “astron” meaning star, and “nomos” meaning law.

Science has progressed and many of the universe’s secrets have been unraveled. Today, we will only explore a few of them.

Teacher. Today’s lesson will focus on the solar system, specifically the planets, meteors, and comets and their positions within the solar system. We will embark on a space journey together to explore these topics. The success of our journey will rely on the efforts of each individual. Preparation is key, and we will only bring what is necessary. We will need teamwork, attentiveness, and, of course, knowledge. Let’s start with a warm-up exercise. Those who remember and know the answers to the following questions can speak from their seats, while those who need a reminder can take a moment to recall.

1. The expansive cosmic realm. (Universe, space)
2. An apparatus used for observing the universe. (Telescope)
3. The star closest to Earth. (Sun)
4. The coolest stars based on their color. (Red)
5. What is the color of the Sun? (Yellow)
6. What are collections of stars known as? (Constellations)
7. How many constellations have scientists identified? (88)
8. Provide the names of some of the most brilliant stars. (Sirius, Altair, Vega, Arcturus, Polaris.)
9. Which star can be used for navigation? Why? (Polaris)
10. How many planets are there in the solar system? (8) (Pluto, the 9th planet, lost its planetary status in August 2006)
11. The path along which planets orbit the Sun. (Orbit)

Teacher. Are you prepared for a journey?

Teacher. We are astronauts and we are embarking on a grand spaceship. Name the planets of the solar system. We must arrange the planets in order of their distance from the Sun.

(Children arrange the pictures of the planets in order).

VI. Comparative analysis of the planets in the Solar System.

Instructor: During space missions, astronauts engage in extensive research activities. Today, we will conduct our own research.

We will read the descriptions of each planet in the Solar System and identify any planets that share similarities with Earth. My assistants will read the log entries for us.

1. Mercury, the planet closest to the sun, is smaller in size compared to Earth and features a solid, rocky surface. This planet experiences extreme temperatures, with scorching heat during the day and freezing cold during the night. Mercury possesses a relatively weak atmosphere and lacks any satellites. Furthermore, it orbits the Sun at an astonishing speed, three times faster than Earth.

2. Jupiter, the fifth planet from the Sun, is an enormous mass of liquid hydrogen, which happens to be the lightest gas known to man. However, despite its lightness, Jupiter is actually the heaviest planet in the solar system due to the sheer volume of liquid hydrogen it contains. Additionally, Jupiter boasts an impressive number of satellites, with a total of 63 currently orbiting around it. One fascinating fact about Jupiter is that it receives very little heat from the Sun, resulting in perpetual winter-like conditions on the planet.

3. Venus, the second planet from the Sun, is characterized by its rocky surface. Unlike Earth, Venus has a dense atmosphere primarily composed of carbon dioxide, making it unsuitable for human and animal respiration. Moreover, the heat on Venus is extremely intense, reaching temperatures of approximately +500˚ Celsius. Interestingly, Venus does not have any natural satellites. When observed from Earth, Venus appears as the brightest bluish-colored star in the sky, making it a captivating and visually stunning sight to behold.

4. Saturn is located in front of Uranus. This planet spins on its side, resulting in one side always facing the sun. It is significantly larger than Earth and is composed mainly of gases, like its neighboring planets. Due to its distance from the sun, heating this planet is impossible. It has a total of 27 satellites.

5. The fourth planet in our solar system is Mars. It is approximately half the size of Earth and has a longer year compared to ours. The atmosphere of Mars is primarily made up of carbon dioxide. Scientists have determined that the planet’s solid surface is covered in orange-red dust, giving it a reddish appearance. The sun’s warming effects on Mars are not as strong as on Earth, resulting in colder summers and harsher winters. Mars has ice caps at its poles and experiences day and night cycles. It has two satellites named Phobos (Fear) and Deimos (Terror).

6. Saturn, the sixth planet, is a massive celestial body situated far from the Sun, resulting in extremely low temperatures. Being a gas planet, it displays a yellowish hue and is encircled by mesmerizing rings composed of ice blocks and rocks, which can be observed using a telescope or powerful binoculars. With a total of 60 satellites, Saturn is truly a sight to behold.

7. Positioned as the eighth planet from the Sun, Neptune showcases a captivating shade of dark blue, primarily due to its gaseous composition, including methane gas, similar to what is used in our gas stoves. Astronomers using telescopes can perceive wispy white clouds adorning Neptune, while an everlasting winter prevails there. This enigmatic planet boasts 13 satellites.

8. Mercury, the planet closest to the Sun, boasts a smaller size compared to Earth and possesses a dense, rocky surface. This scorching planet experiences extreme temperatures, with blistering heat during the day and bone-chilling coldness during the night. Despite having a feeble atmosphere, Mercury lacks any satellites. Remarkably, it orbits the Sun at a speed three times faster than our own planet.

Similar to Earth, there are other planets in the universe that have a solid surface. These planets, known as large planets or Earth-group planets, share some similarities with our own.

(The table “Earth Group Planets” is displayed)

However, our research has also led us to discover planets that are quite different from Earth. Unlike Earth, these planets do not have a solid surface and are composed of _______. Additionally, these planets experience extreme temperatures, with some being incredibly hot and others extremely cold.

When it comes to the composition of planets, they are made up of _______.

Such planets, which lack a solid surface and have different compositions, are known as giants.

(The table “Planets are giants” is displayed).

VII. Observation of other celestial bodies.

As astronauts, we are always observant of our surroundings. During our travels, we have come across celestial bodies in the Cosmos that are not planets. Here is a visual representation of what they look like.

(On the board are pictures of a meteor, a comet, an asteroid.)

Listen to the explanation about the celestial entities and locate an illustration.

1. These objects are small and are formed when tiny particles or pebbles in space collide with the Earth’s atmosphere at high speeds. As they heat up, they ignite and disintegrate at an altitude of approximately 100 km. Some of them fall to the Earth, occasionally leaving a trail on its surface. (Meteors)

(In ancient times, people believed that stars were glowing lanterns hanging in the sky. They thought that each person had their own star that would extinguish at the moment of their death. When a bright star streaked across the sky and vanished, they interpreted it as a sign of someone’s passing. These luminous points traveling across the sky were commonly referred to as shooting stars).

2. A variety of these celestial bodies have shapes that differ from spherical, resembling large blocks moving around the Sun. They are distributed in two belts:

1) There is a region located between Mars and Jupiter, as well as another region situated behind the planet Neptune, where a large number of asteroids can be found. (Asteroids)

(After performing calculations, astronomers hypothesized that there could be an additional planet positioned between Mars and Jupiter. They conducted an extensive search and eventually an Italian astronomer successfully discovered the small celestial body known as Ceres. Subsequently, the scientists identified other asteroids such as Pallas, Juno, and Vesta. Based on their observations, the researchers concluded that a catastrophic event occurred between Mars and Jupiter, causing the large planet to fragment into smaller bodies. Currently, there are approximately 2000 known asteroids within this region).

3. Comets are not particularly large celestial bodies. However, when they come close to the Sun, they are often visible to the naked eye from Earth. Typically, they appear as small, faintly glowing spots. Sometimes, though, bright comets with a long, silvery tail can be seen streaking across the sky, resembling a searchlight. In ancient times, people believed that the appearance of these objects was connected to wars and natural calamities.

(Translated from Greek as “hairy star.” Comets are thought to form from the explosion of asteroids. Scientists have proven that if a comet collides with Earth, the danger is not very significant – only a large meteorite would fall. However, the tail of a comet is composed of carbon monoxide. What would happen if Earth were to pass through the tail? Astronomers have calculated that in 1910, Earth would pass through the tail of Halley’s comet. People began constructing gas shelters and some even resorted to suicide. However, when Earth did pass through the comet’s tail, nothing happened. The Earth’s atmosphere is very dense, preventing the comet gases from penetrating the air layer. In the morning, birds sang and people breathed freely).

Teacher. These celestial bodies are referred to as celestial crumbs.

(The table “Celestial crumbs” is displayed).

Teacher. We have explored the celestial objects and can identify which planets hold exceptional records.

1. Which planet is situated farthest from the sun? (Neptune)
2. Which planet is closest to the sun? (Mercury)
3. Which planet is similar in size to Earth? (Venus)
4. Which planet is the largest? (Jupiter)
5. Which planet is the smallest? (Mercury)
6. Which planet is the hottest? (Venus)
7. Which planet is the coldest? (Uranus)
8. Which planet has the most moons? (Jupiter)

9. This planet is not the smallest or the largest, but what unique feature does it possess that no other planet in the solar system has? (Earth)

Teacher. So, we are back on Earth. The expedition has enabled us to discover the celestial bodies present in the Solar System.

( The Solar System – the Sun, the Earth with its planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteoric bodies).

Educator. The Earth is the only planet in our Solar System that sustains life, and we, humans, are its inhabitants! Our planet, the Earth, is positioned as the third planet from the Sun. It boasts favorable conditions for the growth and development of plants, animals, and humans. The Earth is encased in a bluish haze called the atmosphere, which not only contains breathable oxygen but also shields the planet from excessive heat, cold, and impacts from celestial objects. Moreover, a major part of our planet’s surface is covered in water bodies, and water is an essential element for the existence of all living organisms.

From the Sun, our planet is the third in line,

Yet it receives sufficient warmth and light,

Isn’t life on Earth truly a marvel?

Butterflies, birds, a tiny bug on a flower,

Even in the most remote and distant town!

Teacher. If you enjoyed your journey through space, please raise your hand. Thank you!

The field of science is making progress. People have gained a vast amount of knowledge about the expansive Universe we inhabit, including the ability to launch artificial satellites and venture into space. They have sent space rockets to the Moon and other planets, all with the aim of unraveling the mysteries of the Universe. However, there is still much that remains to be understood and learned, and perhaps it will be up to you to continue this exploration.

Refer to pages 46-47 for messages about celestial bodies (from additional literature).

This material will be reviewed in the next lesson.

Listen to the poem and try to identify the planet being described.

Is it (Jupiter), the largest of all the planets?

Is it (Jupiter), with its bitter cold temperatures year-round?

Or is it a planet (Neptune), far from Earth,

That is not easily visible through a telescope?

It is the planet number eight counting from the sun.

♪ It is permanently experiencing freezing temperatures ♪

(Mars is an enigmatic celestial body.

It has a slightly smaller size compared to Earth.

Due to its crimson hue.

Named after the deity associated with warfare.

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THE ARCTIC AND HUMANITY: A LESSON ABOUT THE WORLD FOR 4TH GRADERS

Today, we will be diving into the fascinating world of the Arctic and its relationship with humanity. This lesson is part of the curriculum for the 4th grade, focusing on the theme of “The Arctic and Man”.

The environment

The solar system is a group of celestial bodies revolving around a single star, known as the Sun. In elementary school, students learn about the arrangement of the planets within the solar system as part of their study of the environment in the 3rd grade. Each planet occupies a specific position and is held in place by the Sun’s gravitational force.

General Information

Every planet in the solar system revolves around a central star known as the Sun, following its own unique orbit.

The Sun system consists of 8 planets. Up until 2006, Pluto was also classified as the ninth planet, but it was later reclassified as a dwarf planet due to its distance from the Sun and relatively small size, thus being excluded from the group of celestial bodies recognized as planets.

The solar-planetary system began to form when a cloud composed of dust and gas molecules began to concentrate and undergo gravitational compression. This event took place approximately 5,000,000,000 years in the past. The outcome was the creation of a star known as the Sun, which now occupies the central position within the system.

Surrounding the Sun, various planetary objects came into existence. The four closest planets to the Sun are typically classified as Earth-like in nature. Beyond these planets lies the asteroid belt.

The outer region of the system is comprised of four gas giants, often referred to as such. Beyond Neptune, there are dwarf planets situated even farther away.

Pluto, which is no longer considered a planet, has become the namesake of an entire category of celestial bodies known as plutoids.

The Earth Group

These celestial objects belong to a group known for their high density. They are organized in the following order:

Despite the apparent disparity, these celestial objects share many similarities, such as their composition.

Primarily, they are composed of substances with a solid structure: silicates, which are minerals that play a role in the formation of numerous rocks, and metals, predominantly iron.

Furthermore, the planets in the Earth group share a similar structure:

The surface of Mercury, one of our planetary neighbors, is being constantly bombarded by meteorites, causing its crust to undergo significant erosion. In contrast, Earth, a member of our solar system, remains intact without any rings.

An informative and captivating way to engage readers is to highlight the unique characteristics of different planets by comparing them to our own. By examining factors such as diameter, length of day and year, we can enhance the educational value of any project, no matter its scale.

The tiniest planet

Mercury, the smallest planet, orbits the Sun in 88 Earth days and completes a rotation on its axis in 58 days and 15.5 hours. It experiences no seasons and has a temperature range of 620°C. The atmosphere contains atoms brought in by the solar wind. Many sources suggest that Mercury has such a low atmospheric density that it is often considered to have no atmosphere at all, and its crust has been almost entirely eroded by meteorite impacts.

"The Morning Star

Venus is similar in size to Earth, but it is quite different in many ways. Interestingly, a year and a day on Venus are almost the same length: a year lasts 255 Earth days and a day lasts 243 Earth days. Venus also has its own unique atmosphere, which is composed of 95% carbon dioxide. This atmospheric composition leads to the greenhouse effect and extreme temperatures (+475°C) on the surface of the planet. Additionally, Venus has a small amount of nitrogen (about 5% of the atmosphere) and a trace amount of oxygen (0.1% of the atmosphere).

Venus does not have any liquid substances. This sets it apart from Earth. Almost the entirety of Venus’ surface is covered in solidified lava. Scientists propose that there may have once been oceans here, but they evaporated and the vapors escaped into outer space. The winds near the planet’s surface are relatively weak, but at an altitude of around 50 km, their speed increases to 300 m/sec.

The surface of Venus is characterized by numerous elevations and craters. These formations are believed to have been caused by a less dense atmosphere in the past, which was unable to shield the planet’s surface from meteorites.

The thick layer of atmosphere reflects light effectively, enabling the observation of this celestial object from Earth during the morning and evening hours. Venus does not possess any natural satellites.

Possibility of Liquid Water and Oxygen

The distance between the Earth and the Sun measures 150 million kilometers. This significant distance has created conditions conducive to the existence of liquid water and, consequently, the emergence of life. A remarkable 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered by liquid water, surpassing all other celestial objects in the solar system.

When discussing the planet Earth, it is important to provide a historical context. Scientists propose that in the distant past, the presence of steam on Earth created the ideal conditions for the formation of liquid water, while solar radiation played a crucial role in the development of photosynthesis and the emergence of life on the planet. One distinctive feature of Earth is the movement of tectonic plates, which directly contribute to changes in the Earth’s terrain.

In addition to holding the absolute record for the amount of liquid water, Earth surpasses other celestial bodies in terms of oxygen content in the atmosphere – it stands at 21%.

A tale concerning the Earth would not be whole without acknowledging its companion, the Moon. It has been in existence for as long as the planet itself – roughly 4.5 billion years.

Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun

The atmospheric temperature on Mars varies from -155 °C to +20 °C. The duration of a day on Mars is 24 hours 37 minutes and 23 seconds, and the Martian year is twice the length of an Earth year.

Extensive data on the topography of Mars gathered by rovers indicate that the planet is home to numerous mountains, glaciers, and dried-up riverbeds. The surface of Mars is characterized by a red color, which is the result of a high concentration of iron oxide in the sand. In addition, the atmosphere of Mars is composed of 1.6% argon, 2.7% nitrogen, and 96% carbon dioxide.

No signs of biological activity have been detected on the red planet, although scientists have determined that it may have been possible in the past. The surface of Mars does not provide the necessary conditions for life to exist. It is hypothesized that if there is any life on Mars, it likely exists deep beneath the surface.

Gas giants

Gas giants, also known as giant planets or Jovian planets, are a type of planet that consists mostly of hydrogen and helium. These planets are much larger than Earth and have thick atmospheres made up of gases. Gas giants are often found in the outer regions of a solar system and are different from terrestrial planets like Earth, which have a solid surface.

Gas giants get their name from the fact that they are predominantly made up of gases. The most common gas found in these planets is hydrogen, followed by helium. Other gases such as methane, ammonia, and water vapor can also be found in their atmospheres.

The size of gas giants is one of their defining characteristics. They are typically several times larger than Earth, with some being even larger than Jupiter, the largest planet in our solar system. Due to their massive size, gas giants have strong gravitational forces and can hold onto their atmospheres more effectively than smaller planets.

The thick atmosphere of gas giants is made up of different layers. The outermost layer, also known as the exosphere, is very thin and gradually merges with the surrounding space. Below the exosphere is the upper atmosphere, which consists of clouds of various gases and particles. Deeper inside the planet, the atmosphere becomes denser and hotter, eventually transitioning into a liquid or even solid core.

Despite their massive size, gas giants do not have a solid surface like Earth. Instead, their surfaces consist of layers of gas and clouds. The exact composition of these clouds can vary depending on the specific gas giant. For example, Jupiter is known for its colorful bands of clouds, while Saturn has its famous rings made up of ice particles.

Gas giants are fascinating objects to study and have been the subject of many space missions. Scientists continue to learn more about these planets and their unique characteristics, helping us understand the diversity of worlds that exist in our universe.

The outer group consists of planets that have a significant size but low density. Gas giants comprise:

They share a chemical composition that is completely distinct from that of Earth-like planets. It consists of:

Nonetheless, the composition of ice in the gas giants varies. Scientists have been able to speculate on the order in which the celestial bodies that constitute the solar system:

1. The Sun, which is positioned at the center of our solar system.
2. The four planets that belong to the Earth group.
3. Jupiter and Saturn, which are the closest gas giants to the Sun.
4. Uranus and Neptune, the other two gas giants in our system.

The gas giants, due to their low specific gravity, have the ability to deform. This unique characteristic causes their compression at the poles.

The structure of gas planets has been found to be layered, with the gas mixture transitioning into a liquid state under pressure. There is a hypothesis that suggests the presence of a solid core made of metal or rock at the center of these planets.

Largest planet in the solar system

Jupiter holds the distinction of being the largest planet in our solar system. With a diameter of 142,800 kilometers, it is 11 times bigger than Earth. A single day on Jupiter lasts approximately 10 hours, while a year takes 12 Earth years to complete.

The temperature beneath the layer of clouds is -150 °C and increases towards the core of the planet. The upper atmosphere consists of helium and hydrogen. Water and oxygen have also been detected. Scientists have theorized that Jupiter’s atmosphere could also contain ice. The deeper layers of the atmosphere remain unexplored.

Jupiter possesses 79 moons. The largest among them are Europa, Callisto, and Ganymede. The latter is one of the biggest moons in the solar system and has a diameter of 2500 km, comparable to that of Mercury. Its surface ice might be concealing water. Callisto is the oldest moon, as evidenced by the highest number of craters on its surface.

A celestial body adorned with a magnificent ring system

Saturn, an extraordinary planet, bears a striking resemblance to our very own Sun in terms of its composition. Its journey around the Sun takes approximately 30 Earth years, while its rotational period is similar to that of Jupiter, spanning 10.5 hours. The surface temperature on Saturn plummets to an icy -180 °C. Notably, the planet’s atmosphere primarily comprises helium and hydrogen.

What truly distinguishes Saturn is the mesmerizing ensemble of 65 satellites and its iconic ring system. Composed of a myriad of tiny ice particles and rocky fragments, these rings have become the planet’s hallmark. The rock-ice dust particles possess exceptional light-reflecting properties, which account for the remarkable visibility of Saturn’s rings.

The luminous nature of the rock-ice dust particles is the key factor behind the remarkable visibility of Saturn’s resplendent rings.

"Ice giant" and the final planet

Uranus is positioned as the seventh planet from the Sun and is the third largest celestial body. It is sometimes referred to as the "ice planet". Uranus received this title due to its extremely low surface temperature, which is -224 °C. The length of a day on Uranus is 17 hours and a year lasts for 84 Earth years. It is interesting to note that the year on Uranus is divided into only two seasons: winter and summer, which have equal durations. This unique characteristic is a result of the planet’s axis being positioned at a 90° angle to its orbit. This gives the appearance of the icy planet lying on its side.

There are 27 moons orbiting around Uranus, with the most well-known ones being: Umbriel, Miranda, Oberon, Titania, Ariel.

Neptune is named after its vibrant azure hue, setting it apart from other celestial entities. The planet’s composition closely resembles that of Uranus. It measures nearly 50,000 kilometers in diameter. A day on Neptune lasts around 16 hours, while a year spans approximately 164 Earth years. Scientists have discovered that the planet’s surface is subjected to powerful winds, reaching speeds of up to 700 km/h – the highest in the entire solar system.

Among Neptune’s 14 satellites, Triton stands out as the most renowned. It boasts its own atmosphere, while the planet itself is encircled by six rings.

Extraterrestrial Entities

The classification of the Union of Astronomers also recognizes the existence of dwarf planets orbiting the Sun. These celestial bodies share the following characteristics:

• They have a spherical shape, which is a result of gravitational forces;
• They are not satellites;
• They do not have the ability to attract objects into their orbits.

There are currently about 50 space objects that are considered dwarf planets. This group includes Pluto (which was classified as a planet until 2006). Pluto has five satellites of its own and is part of the Kuiper belt.

Other celestial bodies that are not planets:

1. Haumea. This cosmic object, which has an elongated shape, is known for having the highest rotational velocity. It is a member of the Kuiper belt and has two satellites in orbit around it.
2. Makemake. This celestial object stands out for being the largest in size among all the bodies in the Kuiper belt, and it also has a satellite.
3. Erid is a celestial body located in the region known as the scattered disk.
4. Ceres is one of the celestial bodies found in the asteroid belt.

The movement of heavenly bodies

The turn of the 21st century witnessed a series of transformations in the understanding of the solar-planetary system’s formation. Specifically, it was determined that the original configuration differed significantly from its current state. The outer region was much more condensed, while the inner region was more massive and contained a considerably larger number of celestial bodies. Scientists estimate this number to be between 50 and 100.

The contemporary appearance of the Solar System was the outcome of a process of mass redistribution during the migration of cosmic bodies within it.

The study of other stellar systems provides support for this scientific concept. Nevertheless, there is currently a lack of undeniable scientific evidence to confirm this theory.

Our home is planet Earth, which forms an essential component of the solar system. It resembles our local community or district within the immense expanse of the galaxy. At the heart of this system lies the Sun (a yellow star or yellow dwarf), with nine planets harmoniously orbiting around it.

The Sun, our closest star

Our solar system revolves around the Sun, which is the only star in our system. It holds all the planets, their moons, and various other celestial bodies, including cosmic dust. The Sun accounts for approximately 99.866 percent of the entire mass of our solar system.

Within our galaxy, the Sun is just one of the 100,000,000,000,000 stars. It ranks as the fourth largest star among them. The star nearest to the Sun is Proxima Centauri, located a distance of four light-years from Earth.

It is a well-known fact that the distance from the Sun to planet Earth is approximately 149.6 million kilometers. The light emitted by the Sun takes about eight minutes to reach our planet. Moving further into space, the center of the Milky Way is located at a staggering distance of 26 thousand light years. This means that the light we receive from this star has traveled for 26 thousand years before reaching us. It is also interesting to note that the star in the Milky Way causes the entire galaxy to rotate around it. This rotation takes a whopping 200 million years to complete a single revolution.

These celestial bodies are familiar to everyone, including schoolchildren. Among them, the closest planet to the Sun is Mercury, followed by Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and the farthest known planet, Pluto.

When it comes to the solar system, it is not just big, but incredibly vast and limitless by earthly standards. To avoid overwhelming ourselves with astronomical distances in kilometers, scientists have devised a unit of measurement for these immense cosmic spaces called the astronomical unit. One astronomical unit (AU) is equal to 149.6 million kilometers, which is the average distance between the Earth and the Sun.

The size of the entire solar system can be estimated by looking at the distance between the Sun and the planet Pluto. It is approximately thirty-nine astronomical units, assuming that Pluto is at its closest point to the Sun – perihelion. However, if Pluto reaches its farthest point from the Sun – aphelion, the distance increases to forty-nine astronomical units.

Using this information, we can calculate that it takes light, which travels at a speed of 299,792 km/s, approximately eight minutes to reach Earth. This is roughly the amount of time it takes for an office worker to have a pleasant conversation with colleagues over a cup of coffee.

The coffee pot is in my hand – a gamma-quantum particle has detached from the Sun and is making its way towards the Earth. I place an empty cup on the table, sweep crumbs from the consumed confectionery onto the floor – the emissary of the yellow star collides with the set table and, upon reflection, merges with numerous other reflected particles. The intensity of this reflected sunlight is referred to as albedo.

Albedo is a metric that describes the reflectivity of any object’s surface; it represents the ratio (in %) of the reflected solar radiation flux to the incident radiation flux.

It’s worth noting that it takes light six hours to reach Pluto. However, when dealing with intergalactic spaces, completely different measurement criteria come into play. Enormous distances, such as those to our beloved neighbor Andromeda, are measured in light-years and parsecs.

A light-year (sv. g., ly) is a unit of length outside of any known system, which corresponds to the distance traveled by light in the span of one year.

– 9,460,730,472,580,800 meters (approximately 9.46 petameters).

Parsec (Russian: пк; international: pc) is a commonly used unit of measurement for distance in astronomy that is not tied to any specific system. The name is derived from the abbreviations of the words “parallax” and “second” – a parsec is equal to the distance to an object whose annual trigonometric parallax is equal to one angular second.

Parsec: According to an equivalent definition, a parsec is the distance at which a segment with a length of one astronomical unit (which is nearly equal to the mean radius of the Earth’s orbit) is seen at an angle of one angular second (1″) when viewed perpendicular to the line of sight.

a. e. ≈ 206,264.8 a. e. = 3.08567776-1016 m =30.8568 trillion km (petameters) = 3.2616 light-years in simple terms, it is 30.8568 trillion km.

Other units of measurement are also utilized: kiloparsec (kpc, kpc), megaparsec (Mpc, Mpc), gigaparsec (Gpc, Gpc). However, dollar units are generally not employed as astronomical units are preferred instead.

What is the luminosity of stars?

The luminosity of stars is measured on a scale that was initially suggested by the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus in 150 BC.

Antares, located in the constellation Scorpius, was the most luminous star recognized during Hipparchus’ era. Hipparchus designated it as the first magnitude star. The star with the least luminosity during that time was assigned the sixth magnitude. Nowadays, astronomers using telescopes and binoculars are able to observe stars with much lower luminosity than what Hipparchus could see. The distance of a star determines its apparent brightness and size, regardless of its actual luminosity. Sirius, the brightest star in our sky, was known as the Dog Star in ancient times due to its association with the Big Dog constellation. In ancient Greece, this constellation was also referred to as the Dog of Orion, the legendary hunter.

All of the nine planets coexist harmoniously with each other. Any inquisitive explorer who dares to venture to the Arctic and brings along a telescope can witness this phenomenon. While shivering in the freezing cold and marveling at the splendor of the night sky, they will easily observe that the planets in our solar system revolve counterclockwise and are aligned in a similar plane. This plane, known as the ecliptic plane, coincides with the cross-section of the celestial sphere and serves as a reference point.

Additional observations will delight the traveler’s eyes and provide reassurance to his soul: all nine celestial bodies revolve in their own designated space in elliptical orbits, preventing any collisions. However, our newly inspired astronomer may find it challenging to notice the crucial detail: the planets are divided into two distinct groups, with an asteroid belt separating them.

The first group consists of the four planets closest to the sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. They share several common characteristics, such as similar density (averaging at 4.5 g/cm³), small size, slow axial rotation, and a limited number of natural satellites. Only Earth has multiple satellites – the Moon – while Mars has Phobos and Deimos. These four planets are collectively referred to as the terrestrial planets.

The inner planets

However, beyond the asteroid belt, the situation is quite different. There exist four other planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. They share similarities in terms of density (averaging at 1.2 g/cm³), enormous sizes, rapid rotations on their axes, and an abundance of satellites surrounding them. Furthermore, these planets lack solid surfaces and are enveloped by atmospheres rich in hydrogen and helium. These four planets are commonly referred to as gas giants.

There are several gas giants in our solar system, including Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

Standing separately from these gas giants is a small and compact planet called Pluto, which shares similarities with the planets in the first group. However, its status has recently changed. The International Astronomical Union has designated it as a dwarf planet. This decision has not been unanimously supported by scientists, and there are still many who consider Pluto to be the ninth planet of our solar system. Alongside Pluto, there are three other companions named Charon, Hydra, and Nycta, and they all reside in an area known as the Kuiper belt, which extends beyond the orbit of Neptune.

Located in the vast expanse of space, this area is equivalent to twenty times the size of the asteroid belt. Within this immense cosmic void, numerous enigmatic and unfamiliar entities can be found. Experts have estimated that a minimum of forty thousand of these objects exist. Notably, a collection of dwarf planets, namely Erida, Ceres, Haumea, and Makemake, have been recently discovered in this distant realm, far removed from our home planet.

Aside from the planets and the Sun itself, there exist smaller celestial bodies within the solar system. These include the aforementioned asteroids, comets, and meteorites. Of these, the largest are undoubtedly the asteroids.

Massive objects of considerable size can measure thousands of kilometers across. These celestial bodies are commonly referred to as minor planets, as they revolve around the Sun within the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

Asteroids can be classified into three categories: carbonaceous, siliceous, and metallic. The primary distinguishing factor between these classes is their color. Carbonaceous asteroids, as the name suggests, have a dark surface due to their high carbon content. These C-type asteroids are the most common in the solar system, accounting for seventy-five percent of all minor planets.

On the other hand, siliceous asteroids, known as S-type, are a combination of iron-nickel ore and silicates. Unlike their darker counterparts, they have a bright appearance. However, they are much rarer, comprising only seventeen percent of all asteroids. The remaining minor planets are classified as metallic asteroids, belonging to the M-type. These asteroids are primarily composed of iron and nickel.

The initial asteroid that was found in outer space got the name Ceres. It has a spherical shape and a diameter of 975 km at the equator. Some of the biggest asteroids known to us are Vesta, Europa, David, Camilla, and several others.

Currently, there are approximately one hundred thousand asteroids in existence.

Let’s now discuss meteorites. It is important to understand the terminology. It may come as an unpleasant surprise to many that our beloved blue planet is susceptible to anything that can fall from space. This includes lost asteroids, ancient comets, and other small, solid formations. Any solid object of cosmic origin that lands on Earth is referred to as a meteorite.

Meteorite in the Earth’s atmosphere

Meteoroids precipitate in a consistent shower of meteorites. Experts have estimated that 5-6 tons of space solids fall into the Earth’s atmosphere per day. Over the course of a year, this adds up to two thousand tons. Fortunately, not all of these meteoroids make it to the Earth’s surface or water, as the laws of physics effectively shield us from cosmic chaos.

First and foremost, we must express gratitude to ablation. This is a mechanism that reduces the mass of small celestial bodies as they traverse the dense layers of the atmosphere.

When a meteorite penetrates the Earth’s atmosphere, it moves at a velocity of approximately 25 kilometers per second. This incredible speed causes the celestial visitor to heat up and emit a luminous glow. As a result of ablation, the extraterrestrial object rapidly loses mass. Smaller fragments are completely incinerated in the upper atmosphere, leaving no trace, while only minuscule particles make their way to the Earth’s surface. Consequently, out of the hundreds of tons of rocky and metallic materials, only grams of these cosmic substances actually reach the blue planet.

However, we must not underestimate the potential danger posed by massive objects plummeting from the sky onto our beloved planet. The impact of such a colossal machine could result in unimaginable devastation and loss of life. Thankfully, occurrences like these are extremely rare.

And lastly. Comets. These celestial objects are among the most enigmatic and mysterious entities that traverse the vastness of our solar system. They originate and reside in the remote and inscrutable darkness of the Oort Cloud, which lies beyond the Kuiper Belt. From this distant location, they embark on their journeys, crossing planetary orbits, approaching the Sun, orbiting it, retracing their path, and ultimately vanishing into the desolate stillness of the boundless cosmos.

Every comet becomes visible to Earth telescopes at a specific time. Some of these enigmatic objects can reappear in 70 years, others in 150, and there are those that won’t be seen for three hundred years.

To organize this matter somehow, comets have been categorized into short-period and long-period comets. Short-period comets are those that return within 200 years. On the other hand, long-period comets have a period of more than 200 years, as their name suggests. Currently, over two hundred short-period comets have been detected, while there are around seven hundred and a few long-period comets.

The concept of the Oort cloud is entirely speculative, meaning it is based on a hypothesis. This hypothesis is built upon the likelihood of the growth of massive planets like Jupiter and Saturn. As these planets gain mass, their gravitational disruptions intensify. Consequently, this causes the expulsion of small celestial bodies known as planetesimals from the ring regions comprised of dust and tiny rocks surrounding these planets. These planetesimals come together to form a spherical expanse on the fringes of the Solar System – the Oort cloud, which serves as the birthplace of comets.

Actually, only the nucleus of the comet is formed at the outer edge, not the entire comet. The nucleus is composed of an icy block made up of frozen gas and other volatile substances, with solid particles embedded within it. Initially, this frozen mass closely resembles a typical asteroid. However, as the nucleus approaches the Sun, which is approximately eleven astronomical units away, a transformation takes place.

When observed from Earth, this moving object gradually starts to take on the appearance of a hazy spot, rather than a false asteroid. This hazy shell is known as the coma and is formed around the nucleus. It results from the vaporization of the frozen gas and other volatile substances that make up the solid core of the comet.

Over time, the coma starts to stretch out. It possesses a tiny tail that becomes quite noticeable when it is about 3-4 astronomical units away from the Sun.

However, at present, the comet is in close proximity to the celestial body (within a distance of no more than 2 astronomical units). Its tail extends and expands significantly as a result of the impact of sunlight on gas particles within the coma, propelling them far into the distance. This elongated, vaporous tail has the potential to span hundreds of thousands, or possibly even millions, of kilometers.

A number of comets exhibit dual tails: a gas tail and a dust tail. The gas tail emanates a luminous plume, as it becomes ionized by ultraviolet light and particle streams originating from the solar surface. Conversely, the dust tail scatters sunlight and takes on the appearance of an extensive haze.

The paths of comets as they orbit the sun are elongated ellipses. However, accurately determining the trajectory of these celestial bodies is challenging. This is because they intersect with the orbits of planets and are influenced by their gravitational pull, which alters their path. As a result, we can only estimate the approximate orbit of these enigmatic wanderers from the far reaches of our solar system.

Comets are directly linked to various mysterious events that occurred on Earth millions of years ago. It is theorized that comets played a crucial role in the development of water and other volatile compounds on our planet.

Comets are also believed to be responsible for the most significant natural disaster that occurred 65 million years ago during the transition from the Cretaceous to the Tertiary periods. It was during this time that dinosaurs and 70% of other organisms inhabiting the Earth vanished.

According to proponents of this theory, a comet nucleus with a diameter of 10 km and a high concentration of iridium collided with our planet. This collision resulted in a powerful explosion, releasing a massive amount of dust into the surrounding atmosphere. The dust blocked the sunlight from reaching the Earth’s surface, causing the average temperature to drop by 10-15 degrees. This dust remained suspended in the air for an entire year, leading to a sudden cooling that proved fatal for all living beings. There is evidence supporting this theory, as the age of the iridium layer found in geological sediments aligns with that time period.

There are numerous theories and hypotheses that encompass not just comets, but all other celestial bodies and structures present in the solar system. One particular area of focus pertains to the origins of the Sun and the planets.

The birth of our solar system

The prevailing theory suggests that the entire, precisely calibrated and functioning cosmic system originated approximately 4.6-5 billion years ago. This level of precision is determined by calculations involving the quantity of helium, which constitutes the second largest portion of the Sun. Our star is primarily composed of hydrogen, and the production of the inert gas helium is a continuous process resulting from ongoing thermonuclear reactions within the core of the yellow star.

The beginning was marked by a massive cloud of interstellar dust and gas. This cosmic formation underwent compaction, potentially due to natural dynamics, a shock wave from a supernova explosion, or another cause.

This compression led to gravitational collapse, which is the rapid and catastrophic compression of massive bodies under the influence of gravitational forces. As a result, a high-density hot core emerged. Surrounding the core, a disk-shaped gas-dust cloud formed, eventually growing to the size of the present-day Solar System.

The protostar underwent a process of contraction, causing its temperature to increase. Eventually, it reached temperatures in the millions of kelvins at its core, which initiated the onset of hydrogen fusion reactions. As a result, helium was produced and the protostar transitioned into a typical star, like our Sun. These cosmic transformations unfolded over a span of over a million years.

Furthermore, the process of planet formation continued. The layer of dust exhibited hydrodynamic instability and eventually transformed into dust seals. These seals collided and contracted, giving rise to smaller solid formations. These newly formed entities then merged to create larger ones, becoming the gravitational centers responsible for the creation of planets from the material in the protoplanetary disk.

The system aimed for stability, and eventually, in the outer regions of the disk, gravitational centers emerged, resulting in the formation of nine planets that orbit in the same plane and direction. This process took approximately four million years. The initial formation of the solar system concluded at this point.

Its further development is characterized by the alteration of orbits and the rearrangement of planets, as well as the emergence of satellites orbiting them. This ongoing process serves as further evidence that there are no fixed forms in the Cosmos that are immune to gravitational interactions. These interactions are the root cause of all lasting changes in previous states, both within the Solar System itself and in larger interstellar and intergalactic formations.

From the aforementioned information, it is clear that mankind has not wasted time over the past centuries and has developed a comprehensive theory that encompasses all aspects of the Solar System. However, upon closer examination, it becomes apparent that numerous questions, ambiguities, and outright mysteries have accumulated over time. The answers to these inquiries are highly debated and uncertain, leaving the truth unclear and elusive.

The Mystery of the Solar System’s Age

One of the greatest enigmas surrounds the age of the solar system. The commonly accepted belief is that it is between 4.6 to 5 billion years old. However, this explanation falls short when considering the calculation of the amount of helium, a byproduct of thermonuclear reactions, currently found on the Sun.

The estimation of the helium content is not a clear-cut value. Some argue that it constitutes 34% of the total solar mass, while others assert it to be 27%. This discrepancy of seven percent leads to a range of possible time intervals, varying from 5 to 6.5 billion years, starting from the moment the protostar transformed into the Sun.

Currently, there is still a lack of understanding regarding the specific thermonuclear reactions occurring within the core of the sun. Two potential pathways for the conversion of hydrogen into helium have been proposed – the proton cycle (also known as the hydrogen cycle) and the carbon cycle (referred to as the Bethe cycle).

Experts generally lean towards the proton cycle, which involves three distinct reactions: the formation of a deuterium nucleus from a hydrogen nucleus, the creation of a helium isotope nucleus with an atomic mass of three from the deuterium nucleus, and the final result of a stable helium isotope with an atomic mass of four.

The Earth’s age: an exploration of our planet’s history

One thing that can’t really be disputed is the age of the Earth and its Moon. We can base our understanding on the concept of radioactivity, which involves the transformation of atomic nuclei into other nuclei while emitting particles and electromagnetic radiation.

In this case, we can use the example of uranium. Uranium is an unstable atom that emits energy and gradually transforms into lead, which is a stable element. By assuming that the rate of nuclear decay remains constant, we can easily calculate the time it takes for one element to replace another.

Every mass of uranium (isotope) contains a specific number of atoms. The substitution of half of the uranium atoms with an equal number of lead atoms occurs over a period of 4.5 billion years – the half-life. The complete conversion of uranium into lead takes 9 billion years.

Australia is the location where the oldest mineral on Earth was discovered, and its age was determined to be 4.2 billion years. Meteorites that fall on our planet are also quite old – typically around 4.5-4.6 billion years. Thanks to the advancements of modern science, such as the American “Apollo” expedition and the Soviet “Luna-16” automatic interplanetary station, samples of lunar soil have been brought back to Earth.

It was not the most fresh. Its age ranges from 4 to 4.5 billion years.

Many individuals immediately latched onto these figures, definitively stating that the entire solar system’s existence also falls within this time period. No one disputes – the Earth and the Moon abide by the same laws as other celestial bodies. However, who can offer a hundred percent assurance that in the near future, a mineral will not be discovered within the depths of our planet, with an age of, for instance, 8 billion years, or that a sample of the same venerable age will not be brought back from the Moon. The composition of other planets, the colleagues of our elderly Earth, is also unknown.

To put it briefly, the inquiry into the maturity of the solar system remains unresolved. It is unlikely that a definitive and specific response will be uncovered in the foreseeable future. However, the reality always favors those who persist and question. With the passage of time, humanity will acquire a wealth of fresh knowledge, and then they will be astounded by how they could not previously perceive the solutions that were practically evident.

This article has been authored by ridar-shakin

Telling Children about Space: Planets and Stars

When explaining the concept of space to children, it is important to use language that is understandable and accessible to them. In this article, I will propose a method of introducing children to the fascinating world of planets and stars.

Exploring the Night Sky

When we gaze at the night sky, we are greeted by a multitude of mesmerizing stars. We also observe the radiant moon, and during the day, the shining sun. However, our knowledge about planets and stars remains limited. So, what exactly are stars?

Stars are luminous spheres of gas that undergo nuclear fusion. They appear diminutive from our perspective due to their immense distance, rendering them unattainable even for the swiftest spacecraft over countless years.
All stars present themselves to us as minute glimmering specks against the backdrop of the night sky, save for a solitary star that stands out prominently and graces us with its presence each day – the Sun.

However, it is not feasible to journey to the Sun. Even if we possessed an extremely rapid spacecraft capable of traversing such a distance, approaching the Sun would be prohibited due to its intense temperature – the Sun is exceedingly hot.

Celestial Bodies

Contrary to stars, celestial bodies do not emit light in the absence of illumination, but they also possess a spherical shape and orbit their respective stars along a designated path known as an orbit. Our planet, Earth, is also a celestial body, and it revolves around the Sun within an orbit.

Just like individuals, planets also possess a unique place of residence. For instance, our beloved Earth can be found dwelling within a galaxy known as the Milky Way.

But what exactly is a galaxy? A galaxy can be described as a vast assemblage of interconnected planets, stars, celestial debris, and interstellar gas.

Imagine a vast city, filled with countless houses, stores, schools, and various other buildings. Just like this city, the universe is home to numerous galaxies, each containing an unimaginable number of stars and celestial bodies.

Within the grand galaxy known as the Milky Way, there exist smaller systems, similar to individual streets within a bustling metropolis. Our planet, Earth, resides in one such system called the Solar System. Aptly named, this system revolves around the Sun, with all the planets in tow, creating a harmonious dance of celestial bodies.

Currently, the solar system consists of 8 planets. In the past, there was a total of 9 planets, however, astronomers made the decision not long ago to reclassify Pluto (the ninth planet) due to its small size, resulting in its exclusion from the planet category.

Helios

The life-giving rays of Helios illuminate our planet. Without the warm embrace of his light, the Earth would be a desolate wasteland devoid of all living creatures. Helios, though classified as a diminutive star, holds immeasurable power.

Hermes

Hermes, the celestial body nearest to Helios, presents itself as a pale orb, reminiscent of sun-dried clay and fertile soil. In comparison to our home planet, Hermes is a mere fraction in size, measuring only 15 times smaller than Earth. Unfortunately, due to its lack of atmosphere and absence of water, Hermes is incapable of sustaining any form of life. Its frigid nights and scorching days make it an inhospitable environment for all living organisms.

There are numerous craters scattered across the surface of the planet – both large and small depressions. These craters are the result of celestial bodies colliding with the planet. Some of these craters are so vast that it would take an entire day to navigate around them.

Mercury has a significantly shorter year compared to other planets, lasting only 88 days. The duration of a year is determined by the time it takes for the planet to complete one orbit around the Sun.

Venus

Venus is the second celestial body in our solar system.

In terms of size, Venus is comparable to Earth, but its appearance is reminiscent of a pale beige sphere. The length of a year on Venus is slightly shorter than that of our planet, totaling 225 days, which is equivalent to approximately 7.5 months.

Venus possesses an atmosphere, although it is not suitable for human respiration due to the abundance of carbon dioxide present in its air composition.

Earth, the third celestial body of the solar system, stands out as the epitome of beauty. With approximately two-thirds of its surface covered in water, one might argue that it would be more apt to refer to our planet as “Water” rather than “Earth.” However, considering that human life can only thrive on small portions of solid ground, it seems fitting that the name remains unchanged.

The moon is an Earth satellite. Satellites are small celestial objects that orbit larger planets. The moon revolves around the Earth, but constantly keeps one side facing it.

The Earth possesses a unique structure. If it were sliced open, it would resemble a chicken egg, with the yolk representing the core of our planet, the egg white being the next layer known as the mantle, and the outermost layer serving as the shell, or crust, where we reside.

Mars

Mars is the fourth planet in our solar system.

Mars is known as the red planet due to its reddish tint on the surface, which is caused by a significant presence of iron. The planet has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are smaller in size compared to the Moon. Additionally, Mars has an atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide, making it uninhabitable.

Jupiter, the largest planet in the solar system, is also known as the fifth planet.

Jupiter does not possess a solid crust – it is a celestial body composed predominantly of gaseous elements. To stand upon its surface or to land upon it in a spacecraft would be an impossibility. Jupiter’s size is approximately 300 times greater than that of Earth.

With a total of 69 satellites, Jupiter is thought to potentially have even more. Interestingly, despite lacking a solid shell, Jupiter is also home to storms and tempests. For instance, the colossal red spot on Jupiter is a massive storm that has been raging for a minimum of 300 years.

Saturn

As the sixth planet in our solar system, Saturn stands out with its unique characteristics and mesmerizing beauty.

Furthermore, it is worth mentioning that Saturn is also a gas planet. In terms of size, Saturn is slightly smaller than Jupiter. Not only does Saturn have a unique feature of stronger winds compared to Jupiter, but it also has mesmerizing auroras. Moreover, Saturn is famous for its striking rings, which are composed of a combination of dust and ice particles. These rings beautifully encircle the planet. Additionally, Saturn boasts an impressive number of satellites, with a total of 62. It is worth noting that Jupiter’s largest satellite, Titan, is also found in the vicinity of Saturn. Another fascinating fact about Saturn is that a year on this planet lasts an incredibly long time, nearly 30 Earth years!

Uranus, the seventh celestial body in our solar system, is classified as an ice giant.

Unlike other planets, Uranus doesn’t have a solid surface. However, it does contain ice within its atmosphere, which contributes to its frigid temperatures. This gives Uranus the appearance of a giant ice ball when observed from a distance.

In addition to its unique composition, Uranus is also known for its rings and satellites. It boasts a total of 27 satellites orbiting around it.

Neptune

Neptune is the celestial body positioned at number eight in the solar system.

Neptune is a planet that is predominantly blue in color. It is known for being incredibly windy. On Neptune, there exists a massive dark spot, resembling a storm, that has persisted for numerous years and is approximately the same size as Earth! Additionally, this planet possesses rings, although they are not easily visible. These rings appear as swirling clouds of icy dust encircling Neptune. Furthermore, Neptune has a total of 14 satellites, with Triton being its largest one. Interestingly, a single year on Neptune amounts to approximately 165 Earth years!

Pluto has been reclassified as a dwarf planet, no longer holding the status of a full-fledged planet.