It may appear that exoplanets and relic radiation are essential, and the selection of candidates is evident. However, upon further investigation, we discovered that the Nobel Committee’s choice in Physics was rather peculiar.
Relict radiation has greatly influenced our perspective on the development of the cosmos. / CCO Public Domain.
The Nobel Committee has recognized James Peebles for his significant contributions to cosmology, as well as Michel Major and Didier Queloz for their discovery of the purportedly “first exoplanet” (which we will demonstrate below to be inaccurate). Let’s delve deeper into these award-winning achievements.
Has Peebles established the foundation of cosmology?
The justification for awarding the first part of the Nobel Prize to James Peebles is not clearly stated in the wording of this year’s Nobel Committee. The press release simply states that he was awarded for his “theoretical discoveries in the field of cosmology.” However, the release does not provide specific details about which discoveries these are. It only mentions that Peebles’ theoretical framework, developed since the mid-1960s, forms the basis of our current understanding of cosmology.
There is no doubt that our modern understanding of cosmology relies on the concept of the Big Bang, followed by the expansion of the universe influenced by factors such as dark matter (which slows down the expansion) and dark energy (which accelerates the expansion). However, Peebles was not directly involved in the discovery of these phenomena.
When the Nobel Committee issues a statement that is difficult to understand, it is valuable to examine the accompanying document, which provides a detailed description of a Nobel laureate’s contribution. In this year’s document, however, the information provided is not very enlightening. It states that in 1965, Penzias and Wilson made an unexpected discovery of relic radiation during their observations. It was only through their collaboration with theorists, such as Peebles and their supervisor Dicke, that the astronomers were able to comprehend the significance of their observations.
Confirmation of the Big Bang: The Discovery of Relic Radiation
In order to fully grasp the significance of the recent confirmation of relic radiation, it is important to understand how this phenomenon was initially predicted. Georgy Gamow, a renowned Soviet physicist, first proposed the idea in 1948. Gamow hypothesized that during the time of the Big Bang, the Universe was not only incredibly dense but also extremely hot. In fact, the temperature was so high that all of space was filled with plasma – a state of matter consisting of ionized gas without any neutral atoms. This plasma absorbed all photons, preventing any radiation from propagating throughout the Universe. However, after approximately 380,000 years had passed since the Big Bang, the temperature had dropped enough for a significant amount of neutral hydrogen atoms to form, resulting in a decrease in the plasma content of space. Despite this decrease, the gas still remained very hot by modern standards, allowing it to continue radiating. This initial radiation, known as “relic radiation,” serves as the first confirmation of the Big Bang theory.
Gamow’s concept of relic radiation has had a monumental impact. Prior to his work, the Big Bang theory was purely speculative and unverifiable, lacking any physical consequences of the explosion that could be observed in our current time.
While the expansion of the Universe was already understood, there were multiple scenarios that could explain it, including a “cold” Universe or even a “steady state” Universe. The situation was further complicated by the fact that the concept of a Universe originating at some point in the past contradicted the long-standing belief in its eternal and unchanging nature. Many physicists in the first half of the 20th century argued that the idea of the “origin of the universe” introduced religious concepts into the realm of science.
The significance of these theses was particularly pronounced because one of the pioneers of the Big Bang theory, Georges Lemaître, was a Catholic priest who openly professed his belief in the divine creation of the universe. Several physicists, including Arthur Eddington, vehemently rejected the notion of a “beginning of time” (the Big Bang), finding it unacceptable. As a result, the Big Bang theory faced opposition from the prevailing views held by most physicists at that time.
A powerful force was required to challenge such deeply ingrained prejudices and irrational attitudes towards the Big Bang hypothesis, which were not based on scientific evidence but persisted stubbornly nonetheless.
“And then simply overlooked them”: why scientists can only perceive what they comprehend
Relic radiation, similar to numerous phenomena in physics, cannot be uncovered until one comprehends its nature. The observer is rendered powerless in this case: no matter how much background radiation of the universe they observe, without the guidance of a theorist, they will never truly understand what they are witnessing.
In 1941 in the Western world and in 1955 in the USSR, background radiation, now known as relic radiation, was detected. However, neither in the West nor in the USSR did anyone grasp its significance, and these observations had no consequences at the time. There have been numerous unexplained phenomena observed in astronomy, both then and now, that are difficult to recall. Without a solid theory, such observations often remain insignificant.
In 1941, the concept of the Universe expanding after the Big Bang was not yet developed (Georgy Gamow would propose it seven years later). By 1956, this theory had been established, but the scientists at the Soviet Pulkovo Observatory, where another observation of relic radiation took place, were unaware of it. Their knowledge of the latest developments in physics was limited. Consequently, as a contemporary scientist recounts the Pulkovo “discovery” of relic radiation, “none of the astrophysicists and cosmologists took note of this crucial fact, as they were unfamiliar with relic radiation and did not give proper consideration to the measurement results. Eventually, they simply forgot about them.”
Gamow was not the sole forecaster of relic radiation. During that period, physicists were already seldom perusing all the works disseminated on their field of study. Hence, his publication in 1948 went undetected. By the beginning of the 1960s, the concepts proposed by Gamow and his collaborators had been largely overlooked: they were independently discovered by Yakov Zeldovich in the USSR and Robert Dicke in the United States, among others.
In 1964, Soviet astrophysicists Doroshkevich and Novikov attempted to estimate the potential for detecting relic radiation based on Gamow’s concept. They determined that the most effective detector for relic radiation could be the horn antenna developed by Bell Laboratories. Little did they know, just a few hundred kilometers away in Pulkovo near Leningrad, suitable antennas for relic radiation were already in place. Unbeknownst to them, relic radiation had already been discovered there. As one can imagine, the work of Novikov and Doroshkevich went unnoticed.
Thus, it is evident that Peebles did not occupy a prominent position among those who, based on the hot Universe model, anticipated the detection of residual radiation. Furthermore, in Peebles’ seminal paper from 1965, the temperature of this radiation was assessed to be seven Kelvin. This estimation paled in comparison to Gamow’s prediction in 1948 and the estimations from the 1950s, which stood at a lower value of five Kelvin. Consequently, Peebles did not hold the distinction of being the initial or most precise of the theorists who foresaw the existence of relic radiation.
Like the rest of Dicke’s team, he indeed assisted Penzias and Wilson. Similar to many other researchers, Penzias and Wilson were not unfamiliar with new physical theories. Consequently, when they stumbled upon an unusual radiation emanating from various directions, they had two options: they could have dismissed it and forgotten about it, similar to the scientists at the Pulkovo Observatory in 1956, or they could have chosen to expand their knowledge on the subject. They opted for the latter: without hesitation, they reached out to their esteemed institution (Princeton University), where Dicke’s team was located, and inquired: esteemed theorists, we have come across something peculiar, do you have any insights on its nature?
However, this alone cannot account for the 2019 Peebles Prize. While the prize may recognize determination and inquisitiveness, it cannot simply be granted based on fortuitous circumstances and a reputable mentor.
The Nobel Committee’s explanatory document highlights that in 1965, Peebles made a significant contribution by proposing that relic radiation played a role in the development of galaxies. This influence holds great importance as the uneven distribution of matter, which allowed for the creation of stars, galaxies, and life, including ourselves, would have been considerably different and less uniform without relic radiation. Peebles also demonstrated that prior to the existence of the first stars, the Universe would not have been capable of producing a significant amount of elements heavier than helium. While Peebles actively supported the concept of cold dark matter, it is important to note that he was more of an advocate than an originator in this regard. The term “dark matter” was first introduced by Henri Poincaré in 1906, with Kelvin being the first to draw attention to it back in 1884.
Can we truly consider the aforementioned advantages of Peebles as “the foundation of our contemporary concepts about cosmology”? In reality, these outcomes are merely a product of the hot Big Bang model and the notion of relic radiation. It is not without justification that the Nobel Committee’s official statement on Peebles does not make reference to either of these articles: they are insufficiently suitable for fulfilling the criteria of what the Nobel Prize is awarded for.
The committee acknowledges that these exoplanets were actually discovered prior to 51 Pegasus b. However, the method used to discover them was not the radial velocity method. In the case of the Poltergeist and Phobetor planets, they were detected because they caused interference with the radio signal of their neutron star host. Such planets are considered rare today, as neutron stars are not a common occurrence. Therefore, the detection method used by the discoverers of Poltergeist cannot be applied on a large scale. It is generally believed that planets around neutron stars have different characteristics, and although the possibility of life exists, they are not given significant attention.
However, it would have been more truthful if the Nobel Committee had explicitly stated that the prize was given to the current recipients while acknowledging that there were previous individuals who actually discovered an exoplanet first. Alternatively, they could have awarded the prize specifically for the discovery of “the first exoplanet around a yellow dwarf” instead of claiming it was the first exoplanet ever.
One of the components of the overall background of cosmic electromagnetic radiation is the cosmic microwave background (CMB). The CMB is evenly distributed throughout the celestial sphere and its intensity corresponds to the thermal radiation emitted by a perfect black body at a temperature of approximately 3 K. This phenomenon was first detected by American scientists Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson.
The relict radiation is background cosmic radio emission that was generated during the early stages of the Universe’s development. It has a spectrum similar to that of a completely black body with a temperature of approximately 3 K. This radiation is observed at wavelengths ranging from a few millimeters to tens of centimeters and is nearly isotropic. The origin of the relict radiation is associated with the evolution of the universe.
[GOST 25645.103 84] states that relict radiation is a type of background cosmic radiation that emerged in the early stages of the Universe’s development. It is characterized by physical conditions in space.
The background cosmic radiation is a form of radiation from outer space that has a spectrum similar to a completely black body with a temperature of about 3°K. It is observed at wavelengths ranging from a few millimeters to tens of centimeters and is nearly isotropic. The relict radiation is believed to have originated from the evolution of the universe.
Relict radiation, also known as cosmic electromagnetic radiation, is the residual electromagnetic radiation that permeates the observable part of the universe. This radiation has existed since the early stages of the universe’s expansion and has played a crucial role in its evolution. It serves as a unique source of information about the universe’s past. Referred to as relicium remnant in Latin, relict radiation is associated with the evolution of the universe following the “big bang.” It is often described as background cosmic radiation, with a spectrum similar to that of a completely black body. This concept is discussed in the Beginnings of Modern Natural Science and the Big Soviet Encyclopedia.
The background cosmic radiation is a form of radiation that is observed at wavelengths ranging from several mm to tens of cm. It has a spectrum that is similar to that of a completely black body with a temperature of around 3 K. This radiation is practically isotropic, meaning it is evenly distributed in all directions. The origin of the background cosmic radiation is closely linked to the evolution of the Universe in the past. It is believed that in the distant past, the Universe had a high temperature and radiation density, which led to the formation of this cosmic radiation.
Another form of cosmic radiation is the thermal background cosmic radiation. This radiation has a spectrum that is similar to that of a completely black body with a temperature of 2.7 K. Like the background cosmic radiation, its origin is also attributed to the evolution of the Universe. The Universe in the distant past had a high temperature and radiation density, which resulted in the formation of this thermal background cosmic radiation. Both forms of cosmic radiation are fascinating subjects in the field of natural science and astronomy.
Cosmology Age of the universe Big bang Co-moving distance Relict radiation Cosmological equation of state Dark energy Hidden mass Friedman universe Cosmological principle Cosmological models Formation … Wikipedia
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MICROWAVE BACKGROUND RADIATION
(Relic radiation) is a form of cosmic radiation that exhibits a spectrum that is characteristic of a completely black body at a temperature of approximately 3 K. This radiation determines the intensity of the background radiation of the Universe in the centimeter, millimeter, and submillimeter radio wave ranges. It is notable for its high level of isotropy, with the intensity being practically the same in all directions. The discovery of relic radiation by M.F.I. (A. Penzias, P. Wilson, 1965) provided confirmation for the hot Universe theory. This theory, which is supported by the most significant experimental evidence, asserts the isotropy of the Universe’s expansion and its homogeneity on large scales (see “Cosmology”).
Based on the theory of the hot Universe, the expanding Universe used to have a higher density and temperature in the past. When the temperature was above 10^8 K, there was a primary plasma consisting of protons, helium ions, and electrons that continuously emitted, scattered, and absorbed photons. This plasma was in equilibrium with radiation and followed the laws of thermodynamics. As the Universe expanded, the temperature of the plasma and radiation decreased. The interaction between particles and photons no longer had enough time to significantly influence the radiation spectrum due to the expansion of the Universe (the optical thickness of the Universe due to braking radiation became much smaller than unity). However, even without interaction between radiation and matter during the expansion, the radiation spectrum remains a blackbody, only with decreasing temperature. When the temperature exceeded 4000 K, the primary matter was completely ionized, and the photons traveled a much shorter distance between scattering events compared to the event horizon of the Universe. At temperatures below 50 cm, radio telescopes receive both free-free emission and synchrotron radiation from relativistic electrons in the interstellar medium of the Galaxy, which makes it challenging to isolate the free-free emission. The synchrotron radiation from the Galaxy is unevenly distributed across the sky. Of particular interest is a region with a minimum brightness temperature (Tb) of 80 K at a frequency of 178 MHz. This serves as an upper limit for the brightness temperature of the free-free emission at this frequency. It is only possible to isolate the extragalactic component if the emission spectrum of the Galaxy differs from that of the free-free emission. Unfortunately, they are similar enough. A careful analysis shows that the background brightness temperature at 178 MHz is close to 30 K, and the spectral index matches that of the emission from radio galaxies (a = 0.75). This allows us to determine the brightness temperature and intensity of the free-free emission at any wavelength in the meter range: Tb = 30(l/1.7m)^2.75 K and Iv = 3 x 10^-19(l/1.7m)^0.75 erg (cm^2.s.s.Hz.sr)^-1. The similarity in spectral indices between the free-free emission and radio galaxies suggests that the long-wavelength free-free emission is a combination of emission from distant powerful discrete sources of radio emission, such as radio galaxies and quasars. However, the spatial density and radio luminosity of radio galaxies observed near our Galaxy are not enough to explain the intensity of the free-free emission. Progress in understanding this issue was made after counting faint and distant radio sources. The dependence of the number of sources on the flux was found to be steeper than expected, indicating that in the past when the Universe was younger, there were more powerful radio sources (specifically, more radio sources for a given number of galaxies). This implies a cosmological evolution of radio sources, where distant powerful radio galaxies and quasars are observed today as faint radio sources. It is these numerous sources that contribute to the free-free emission in the long radio wave region.
Figure 2. Ratio of the energy densities of the background radiation of the Universe and the diffuse radiation of Galactic origin; represented in eV/cm 3.
Infrared range (10 12 Hz 25 µm) is the range of infrared radiation. The majority of objects in this range are cold stars (protostars in the process of condensing) and giant stars) with a temperature of 1.
The background cosmic radiation and the Big Bang hypothesis are also factors in this phenomenon.
As per the theory of the Big Bang, the initial state of the Universe was a high-temperature plasma made up of protons, neutrons, electrons, and photons (specifically baryons, one type of leptons, and photons). It is postulated that photons interacted continuously with the other particles in the plasma (protons, neutrons, and electrons) through the Compton effect, resulting in elastic collisions and energy exchange. Consequently, the radiation was expected to be in thermal equilibrium with matter, and its spectral profile should have resembled that of a perfect black body.
According to the Big Bang theory, it was expected that the cosmological redshift would cause the plasma to cool. Eventually, the temperature would become low enough for electrons to combine with protons and alpha particles, forming atoms. This process, known as recombination, is believed to have occurred when the plasma temperature reached approximately 3000 K and the universe was estimated to be around 400,000 years old. After recombination, photons were no longer scattered by the now neutral atoms and could freely travel through space without much interaction with matter. This moment, known as the surface of the last scattering, is considered to be the farthest object that can be observed in the electromagnetic spectrum in the context of the Big Bang theory. Over time, as the Universe continued to expand, the temperature of radiation decreased and is now measured to be 2.725 K. (Information sourced from Wikipedia and slightly modified).
Let’s now discuss some criticism from a physics standpoint.
Neutrons, also known as “baryons,” are fundamental particles that are inherently unstable. After a certain period of time (approximately 1000 seconds), each neutron will undergo decay and transform into a proton, an electron, and an electron antineutrino. As a result, this “mixture” should consist of protons, electrons, photons, and electron antineutrinos. During the process of neutron decay, the electron antineutrino, being an elementary particle with the lowest rest mass, will carry away a significant portion of the decay energy. Subsequently, through collisions with another antineutrino in intergalactic space, both particles will transition into excited states, leading to the emission of low-energy photons – the background cosmic radiation. Therefore, the Big Bang hypothesis cannot evade the influence of these natural laws, as its ignorance of them is apparent.
Hydrogen is the only element that can be obtained from protons and electrons. Therefore, the Universe, which consists mainly of hydrogen, can be called a hydrogen Universe. In the “relic” radiation of this Universe, spectral lines of hydrogen should be present. Helium atoms, on the other hand, cannot be created without the involvement of stars and their thermonuclear reactions. However, if we consider the hypothesis that stars took 400,000 years to form helium, this would not be enough time.
Nobody has provided evidence for the expansion of the Universe – it is merely an assumption based on a biased interpretation of the red shift favoring the Doppler effect and disregarding the interactions of elementary particles. It is also a fictional story to assert that photons were able to freely traverse space with minimal or no interaction with matter after 400,000 years. In this scenario, we have overlooked the existence of antineutrinos resulting from neutron decay, as well as photon-neutrino interactions that are disregarded by the standard model. Furthermore, the interactions of antineutrinos themselves have been forgotten. Lastly, physics has not discovered any proof of a Big Bang occurring in the history of the universe.
Now, the question arises: why did this happen? More precisely, why was the erroneous hypothesis replacing the Big Bang theory?
Therefore, an error in the selection of the foundation naturally resulted in an incorrect outcome. It is evident in the field of physics, but it may be a novel concept in the realm of cosmology. If that is the case, then cosmology will need to undergo a rigorous training course in order to abide by the laws of nature, just as physics did in the past. It is worth noting that a small portion of physics, specifically elementary particle physics, persistently attempts to defy the law of conservation of energy, which goes against nature. The consequences of this prank are now clear: fantastical “theories”.
As a result, the background cosmic radiation, mistakenly referred to as “relic” and believed to have been created by the Big Bang, must have alternative sources in nature.
2. Cosmic radiation background and field theory
The theory of elementary particle field, which is one of the sources of background cosmic radiation, suggests that there are interactions between neutrinos (and antineutrinos) emitted by stars in massive quantities. These neutrinos, due to their extremely light nature (less than 0.052eV), carry away a significant portion of fusion energy. As a result, they travel at relativistic speeds and can easily escape not only their own star system, but also the entire galaxy. When these neutrinos collide with neutrinos from other stars in the intergalactic space, elementary particles enter into excited states. Eventually, after a certain period of time, these excited neutrinos transition to lower energy states, emitting low-energy photons in the process. This emission of photons occurs in the intergalactic space. Thus, the illusion is created that electromagnetic radiation is appearing out of nothing (seemingly violating the law of conservation of energy) or from the distant past (Big Bang).
The next source of cosmic radiation in the background is the interaction between a photon and a neutrino. When photons of light, whether it be in the ultraviolet or infrared range, collide with a neutrino, they transfer a small but nonzero amount of their energy. As a result, the neutrino becomes excited and emits a quantum of microwave radiation, while the energy of the colliding photon decreases, creating a redshift. Therefore, the formation of redshift is one of the mechanisms contributing to the background cosmic radiation.
Another source of background cosmic radiation arises from annihilation reactions between pairs of elementary particles, such as the annihilation of a “neutrino-antineutrino” pair or an “electron-positron” pair.
Consequently, the electromagnetic radiation of excited neutrinos (antineutrinos) must be present in the background cosmic (relic) radiation. This occurs when they undergo a change to a lower energy level. At present, the field of physics lacks the capability to determine the rest masses of electron and muon neutrinos, as well as the energies associated with their excited states. As a result, the composition of the background cosmic (relic) radiation remains uncertain, and it is unclear whether neutrino collisions are the primary cause or if there are other significant components involved.
According to classical electrodynamics, electromagnetic radiation, such as the cosmic background radiation, can only be produced if the laws of electromagnetism and other laws of nature are followed. This type of radiation is created by the electromagnetic fields of elementary particles or their combinations, such as atoms, molecules, and ions. Once this radiation is created, it will always interact with the electromagnetic fields of other elementary particles, regardless of the stage of the Universe’s creation. Therefore, if a Universe exists, it must also have its own set of laws, including the laws of electromagnetism, which are an essential part of the Universe.
Only by expending kinetic energy, such as through the formation of new “particle-antiparticle” pairs, can the plasma, which is in thermal equilibrium, be cooled. However, this process would also create antimatter alongside matter, leading to significant consequences and potential universal cataclysms. Furthermore, the expansion of the Universe should not be assumed, but rather proven.
In the Big Bang article, it was demonstrated that classical electrodynamics and the Big Bang hypothesis are contradictory. Therefore, it can be concluded that the background cosmic (relic) radiation must have sources other than the Big Bang.
4. The Origin of Background Cosmic Radiation and the Principle of Energy Conservation
As per the principle of energy conservation, which remains valid in the natural world, electromagnetic radiation such as background cosmic radiation cannot be generated from energy forms that do not exist naturally, whether it be through a hypothetical Big Bang or hypothetical quantum fluctuations in a vacuum. Background cosmic radiation must have its origins in natural sources. These sources include interactions, reactions, and transformations of elementary particles emitted by stars.
5. Natural sources of background cosmic radiation
Given that the concept of a Big Bang is rejected by physics, it is reasonable to conclude that the background cosmic radiation is not relic radiation. Therefore, it must originate from natural sources.
Physics proposes several potential natural sources for background cosmic radiation:
- Radiation emitted by excited neutrinos, including both electron and muon neutrinos
- The annihilation reaction of electron neutrino-antineutrino pairs
- The decay reactions of muon neutrinos into electron neutrinos, accompanied by the emission of photons (known as neutrino oscillations)
- Radiation emitted by individual atoms or molecules
- Emission of neutrino gas molecules, which are bound states of multiple electron neutrinos
In this scenario, the neutrino undergoes a transformation into higher energy states when it collides with another neutrino or when photons from various ranges, such as visible, ultraviolet, and infrared, pass through it. These photons have energies that surpass the excitation energy of the neutrino. Consequently, light emitted from distant galaxies, known as redshift, serves as an additional source of excitation for neutrinos.
6. Natural Mechanism for the Formation of the Main Component of Background Cosmic Microwave Radiation (Work in Progress)
Physics has now discovered a natural mechanism that explains the formation of the main component of background cosmic microwave radiation, which is one of its primary natural sources.
To comprehend this, let’s examine the map of background cosmic radiation (authentic, without adjustment for “relic radiation”) displayed at the beginning of this article (at the top). As depicted, it is bisected by a red horizontal stripe, indicating that the majority of the recorded radiation originates from our galaxy. Consequently, there exist natural processes within our galaxy that generate background cosmic radiation. Similar processes occur in other galaxies, albeit to a lesser extent, as well as in intergalactic space.
According to the elementary particle field theory, the interaction between electron neutrinos occurs through their electromagnetic fields. The diagram illustrates the potential energy of interaction for a pair of electron neutrinos with antiparallel spins lying in the same plane.
The diagram reveals the existence of a potential well with a depth of 1.54×10 -3 ev and a minimum at a distance of 8.5×10 -5 cm. This suggests that a pair of electron neutrinos can form a bound state with zero spin and an energy on the order of 0.72×10 -3 ev (a more precise value can be determined using quantum mechanics).
This particular bound state would have similarities to a hydrogen molecule, except for the fact that in this “molecule” (ν e2), the neutrinos interact with their own electromagnetic fields. Due to the extremely low value of the binding energy, the ν e2 molecule would remain stable under conditions close to absolute zero and in the absence of collisions with other electron neutrinos, and potentially beyond.
In addition, electron neutrinos have the capability to form more intricate bound states with higher binding energies, such as ν e4 (and other variations). As a result, it is likely that there exists a form of neutrino matter in the Universe in the form of a neutrino gas, primarily composed of ν e2 molecules, and to a lesser extent, ν e4 molecules.
As a result of the interaction of this neutrino gas with light, it creates a redshift. Additionally, it interacts with electron neutrinos emitted by stars in large quantities. This interaction causes the breakdown of molecular compounds of electron neutrinos. On the other hand, when a pair of electron neutrinos fuse together to form a molecular compound, it releases energy in the form of microwave electromagnetic radiation. The wavelength of this radiation corresponds to the main component of the background cosmic microwave radiation (996). Furthermore, when a pair of ν e2 molecules fuse to form a ν e4 molecule, even more energy is released. This energy corresponds to the spectral region 34 in the figure.
Therefore, the background cosmic microwave radiation (mistakenly referred to as “relic radiation”) no longer has a divine origin and instead has natural sources.
7. Relict radiation: The main point
The cosmic microwave radiation that has been historically (mistakenly) referred to as relic radiation must have natural origins. One of these origins includes interactions with neutrinos.
It is essential to thoroughly investigate the entire spectrum of background cosmic radiation (across all frequencies, not just limited to microwave frequencies) and identify its components, as well as their potential sources. Instead of creating new fictional stories about the creation of the Universe, it is important to focus on scientific research. Any such fictional tales belong in children’s literature, unless they want to be rejected, as physics continues to move forward.
Relict radiation (derived from Latin word relictum meaning residual) is also known as cosmic microwave background radiation (abbreviated as CMBR), is a type of thermal radiation that is evenly distributed throughout the Universe. It originated during the period of primary recombination of hydrogen. This radiation exhibits a high level of isotropy and follows a spectrum that is characteristic of a perfect black body with a temperature of 2.72548 ± 0.00057 K. [1]
The prediction of relic radiation was initially made by G. Gamow as part of the Big Bang theory. While several aspects of the original theory have been revised, the fundamental principles that allowed for the prediction of the effective temperature of relic radiation remain unchanged. In 1965, the existence of relic radiation was experimentally confirmed. Alongside the cosmological redshift, relic radiation is considered one of the primary pieces of evidence supporting the Big Bang theory.
The term relic radiation, which is commonly used in Russian literature, was coined by the Soviet astrophysicist I. S. Shklovsky [2].
As per the concept of the Big Bang, the initial cosmos was a high-temperature plasma comprising of electrons, baryons, and photons continually releasing, absorbing, and re-emitting photons. The photons were persistently engaging with the remaining plasma particles, colliding with them and exchanging energy – this included Thomson [3] and Compton [3] scattering [source not specified 3568 days]. Consequently, the radiation remained in a state of thermal balance with matter, and its spectrum matched that of a pure black body.
As the Universe expanded, the plasma underwent cosmological redshift, leading to a decrease in temperature. Eventually, the slowed electrons were able to combine with the slowed protons and alpha particles to form atoms, a process known as recombination. This recombination occurred when the plasma temperature was around 3000 K and the universe was approximately 400,000 years old [4]. This expansion of space between particles resulted in the particles themselves becoming smaller, allowing photons to move freely without frequent scattering. These photons, known as relict radiation, were emitted by the plasma towards the future location of the Earth during recombination and managed to avoid scattering, ultimately reaching the Earth through the expanding universe. The surface of last scattering refers to the observed sphere corresponding to this moment [3]. It is the most distant object observable in the electromagnetic spectrum.
Due to the continuous expansion of the Universe, the effective temperature of this radiation has gradually decreased to nearly absolute zero, currently measuring only 2.725 K.
Research History [edit]
Initial Serendipitous Detection [edit]
In 1941, while examining the absorption of light from the star ξ Serpens by CN molecules in the interstellar medium, Andrew McKellar observed [5] [6] that absorption lines were present not only for the molecule’s ground rotational state, but also for its excited state. The ratio of line intensities corresponded to a CN temperature of approximately 2.3 K. This phenomenon remained unexplained at the time [7].
Prediction [ edit ]
In 1948, Georgi Gamow, Ralph Alpher, and Robert Herman made a groundbreaking prediction about relic radiation. This prediction was based on the first hot Big Bang theory that they had developed. Alpher and Hermann were even able to determine that the temperature of this relic radiation should be 5 K, while Gamow predicted it to be 3 K[8]. Before this prediction, there were some estimates of the temperature of space, but they had a few limitations. Firstly, these estimates only measured the effective temperature of space and did not take into account the fact that the radiation spectrum follows Planck’s law. Secondly, these estimates were influenced by our specific location at the edge of the Milky Way galaxy and did not consider the possibility of isotropic radiation. Additionally, if the Earth were situated anywhere else in the universe, these estimates would have yielded significantly different results.
Background [ edit ]
In 1955, Tigran Aramovich Shmaonov, a graduate student in radio astronomy at the Pulkovo Observatory, conducted research under the guidance of renowned Soviet radio astronomers S. E. Khaikin and N. L. Kaidanovsky. Shmaonov’s research focused on measuring radio emissions from space at a wavelength of 32 cm, where he successfully detected microwave radiation noise [9]. The results of his measurements led to the conclusion that the effective temperature of the background radio emission was approximately 4 ± 3 K. Notably, Shmaonov observed that the intensity of the radiation remained constant regardless of the direction in the sky or the time of measurement. Following the defense of his thesis, Shmaonov published an article on his findings in the non-astronomical journal “Instruments and Technique of Experiment” [10].
Discovery [edit].
Gamow’s findings did not receive much attention at the time. However, Robert Dicke and Yakov Zeldovich were able to replicate his results in the early 1960s.
These findings prompted David Todd Wilkinson and Peter Roll, who worked alongside Dicke at Princeton University, to construct the Dicke radiometer in 1964. This device was designed to measure relic radiation.
In 1965, Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson, scientists at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Holmdale, New Jersey, constructed a device resembling the Dicke radiometer. Their initial intention was to employ this instrument for experiments in radio astronomy and satellite communications rather than for the purpose of detecting relic radiation. However, during the calibration process, they unexpectedly encountered an unexplained excess noise temperature of 3.5 K in the antenna. When informed of this discovery, Dicke playfully exclaimed, “Gentlemen, we’ve been tricked!” (or “Gentlemen, we’ve been outdone!”). Subsequently, after engaging in a collaborative discussion, the research teams from Princeton and Holmdale collectively determined that this elevated antenna temperature was indeed a result of relic radiation. In recognition of their groundbreaking finding, Penzias and Wilson were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978.
In 1983, the initial trial, known as RELICT-1, was performed with the aim of measuring relic radiation emitted by a spacecraft. In January 1992, Russian scientists made an announcement regarding the discovery of anisotropy in relic radiation, based on their analysis of the data obtained from the RELIKT-1 experiment [11]. Shortly after, American scientists also reported the detection of fluctuations in relic radiation, using the data collected from the COBE experiment [12]. In recognition of this breakthrough, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded in 2006 to the leaders of the COBE group, George Smoot and John Mather, even though the Russian researchers had published their findings prior to their American counterparts [13] [14] [15] [16].
The figure illustrates the spectrum of relic radiation obtained from the data gathered by the FIRAS instrument aboard the COBE satellite. The scale of the figure does not show the measurement errors.
The FIRAS far-infrared spectrophotometer, which is located on NASA’s Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite, has conducted the most precise measurements up to this point of the relic radiation’s spectrum. These measurements have confirmed that the spectrum corresponds to that of radiation emitted by a perfectly black body with a temperature of 2.725 K.
The most comprehensive map of relic radiation was constructed as a result of the efforts made by the American spacecraft WMAP.
The Plank mission satellite, which is operated by the European Space Agency, was launched on May 14, 2009 [17] [18]. The expectation was that observations would continue for a duration of 15 months, with the possibility of a 1-year extension to the mission. The data obtained from this experiment would then be used to verify and refine the results obtained by WMAP.
Characteristics [ edit ]
The relic radiation anisotropy (as depicted in the panorama) is represented on the map, with the horizontal band indicating the illumination from the Milky Way galaxy. Warmer areas are highlighted in red, while cooler areas are shown in blue. This information is derived from the data collected by the WMAP satellite.
The reconstructed relic anisotropy map, which excludes the image of the Galaxy, image of radio sources, and image of dipole anisotropy, presents a visual representation of the distribution of temperature variations. Warmer regions are displayed in red, while cooler regions are depicted in blue. These findings are based on data obtained from the WMAP satellite.
The spectrum of the residual radiation filling the Universe corresponds to the spectrum of radiation emitted by a completely dark object with a temperature of 2.725 kelvin. The peak of this spectrum occurs at 160.4 GHz (microwave radiation), which corresponds to a wavelength of 1.9 mm. The radiation is evenly distributed in all directions, with a standard deviation of the temperature of approximately 18 μK, indicating an isotropic nature. However, this value does not account for the dipole anisotropy, which measures the difference in temperature between the coldest and hottest regions, amounting to 6.706 mK [19]. This anisotropy is caused by the Doppler shift of the radiation frequency due to our own velocity relative to the reference frame associated with the residual radiation. The redshift of the residual radiation is slightly greater than 1000 [20].
The energy density of the residual radiation is 0.25 eV/cm3 [21] (4.005-10^-14 J/m3) or (400-500 photons/cm3 [22]).
Dipole anisotropy [ edit ]
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Dipole anisotropy [ edit ].
In 1969, scientists made a groundbreaking discovery about the relic radiation. They found that there is a dipole component in the radiation, meaning that the temperature varies depending on the direction. Specifically, in the direction of the constellation Leo, the temperature is 0.1% higher than average, while in the opposite direction it is 0.1% lower [23]. This phenomenon is explained by the Doppler effect, which occurs when the Sun moves relative to the relic background. The Sun’s speed towards the constellation of Leo is approximately 370 km/s. Additionally, the Sun’s movement within the Local Group of galaxies, including the Milky Way, must also be taken into account [24]. Therefore, the Local Group as a whole is moving at a speed of about (according to current data) km/s towards a specific point with galactic coordinates [25] [26]. This point is located in the constellation Hydra [27].
A depiction of the dipole anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation is shown in this map. The horizontal bar represents the illumination from the Milky Way galaxy. Warmer regions are highlighted in red, while cooler regions are depicted in blue. This map is based on data collected by the WMAP satellite.
Additionally, there exist alternative theories that offer explanations for the significance of the dipole component of the cosmic microwave background radiation [28].
Relation to the Big Bang [ edit ] .
Primary anisotropy [ edit ]
Polarization [ edit ]
Relict radiation exhibits polarization at the level of a few μK. The polarization of electromagnetic radiation allows for the distinction between E-mode (gradient component) and B-mode (rotor component) [29]. The E-mode can arise when radiation passes through an inhomogeneous plasma due to Thompson scattering. On the other hand, the B-mode, which has a maximum amplitude of only 0.1 μK, cannot be generated through interaction with the plasma.
The presence of the B-mode is indicative of inflation in the universe and is determined by the density of primary gravitational waves. However, detecting the B-mode is a challenging task due to the unknown noise level associated with this component of the relic radiation, as well as the fact that the B-mode is mixed with the stronger E-mode through weak gravitational lensing [30].
As of 2015, there have been no observations that confirm the discovery of the B-mode. On March 17, 2014, researchers from the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics reported the detection of a B-mode at r = 0.2 [31] [32] [33] [34] [35]. However, a more recent study (published on September 19, 2014) conducted by another team of scientists using data from the Planck Observatory indicated that the findings could be entirely explained by galactic dust [36].
The secondary anisotropy of relic radiation occurs when photons travel from the last scattering surface to the observer, undergoing scattering on a hot gas or passing through a gravitational potential [37].
At the time when relic radiation photons began to propagate freely, the predominant form of ordinary matter in the Universe was neutral hydrogen and helium atoms. However, observations of galaxies now indicate that the majority of the intergalactic medium is composed of ionized material, as evidenced by the presence of several absorption lines associated with hydrogen atoms. This suggests that there was a period of reionization, during which some of the matter in the universe once again became ionized, consisting of ions and electrons [38].
When microwave radiation photons encounter unbound charges like electrons, they scatter. In a universe where atoms are ionized, these charged particles are knocked out of neutral atoms by ultraviolet radiation. In most of the universe’s volume, the density of these free charges is low enough that they don’t significantly impact the relic radiation. However, if the intergalactic medium was ionized during the early stages of expansion, when the universe was denser, it would have two major effects on the relic radiation:
- Small-scale fluctuations would be blurred, similar to how an object appears fuzzy when viewed through fog.
- Scattering photons on free electrons (known as Thomson scattering) will result in polarization anisotropy of relic radiation on large angular scales, which will be correlated with temperature anisotropy.
The WMAP space telescope has observed both of these phenomena, indicating that the Universe was ionized in its early stages (at redshifts greater than 17). The source of this early ionizing radiation is still a subject of scientific debate. It is likely that this radiation includes the light emitted by the very first stars, supernovae that formed from the evolution of these stars, and ionizing radiation emitted by the accretion disks of massive black holes.
During the period between reionization and our observations of the relic radiation, two additional effects occurred which are responsible for the fluctuations. These effects are known as the Syunyaev-Zel’dovich effect and the Sachs-Wolf effect. The Syunyaev-Zel’dovich effect involves a cloud of high-energy electrons scattering relic photons and transferring some of its energy to them. The Sachs-Wolf effect, on the other hand, causes a shift in the photon spectrum from the cosmic microwave background to the red or violet region of the spectrum due to changes in the gravitational field.
Both of these effects are influenced by structures in the late Universe, specifically when the redshift is less than or of order 1. These effects lead to a blurring of the relic spectrum as they are superimposed on the primary anisotropy. However, they also provide valuable information about the prevalence of structures in the late Universe and can trace their evolution [37].
- DASI (Degree Angular Scale Interferometer) (USA) [39]
- South Pole Telescope (SPT, “South Polar Telescope” (SPT), “South Pole Telescope”) (USA) [40]
Analysis [ edit ]
Relic radiation’s power spectrum (distribution of energy on different angular scales, or multipoles) is obtained from observational data: WMAP (2006), Acbar (2004) Boomerang (2005), CBI (2004), and VSA (2004). The pink region represents the theoretical predictions.
Studying the radiation from ancient artifacts in order to acquire its maps, angular power spectrum, and ultimately cosmological parameters is a challenging and computationally demanding task. While the calculation of the power spectrum based on the map is a fundamentally straightforward Fourier transform that represents the breakdown of the background into spherical harmonics, it is difficult to effectively account for the effects of noise in practice.
Specialized software packages are utilized for the analysis of the data:
- HEALPix (Hierarchical Equal Area isoLatitude Pixelization) is an application package employed by the WMAP team.
- GLESP (Gauss-Legendre Sky Pixelization) – a package that was developed as an alternative to HEALPix with the collaboration of scientists from Russia, Germany, England, and Taiwan.
Each package utilizes a distinct format for storing relic maps and employs different methods for processing.
Weak multipole moments [ edit ]
Related articles [ edit ]
References [ edit ]
- ↑Fixsen, D. J. The Temperature of the Cosmic Microwave Background // Astrophysical Journal. – 2009. -. -. — DOI:10.1088/0004-637X/707/2/916. – Bibcode: 2009ApJ. 707..916F . – arΧiv: 0911.1955.
- ↑Shklovsky I. S., Universe, Life, Mind. M.: Nauka., 1987)
- ↑ 3,03,1D.Y. Klimushkin, S.V. Grablevsky.Chapter 5. Relict radiation and the theory of the hot Universe, §5.3. Matter and radiation in the hot expanding Universe. Cosmology (2001). Checked May 11, 2013.
- ↑Abbott, B.Microwave (WMAP) All-Sky Survey. Hayden Planetarium (2007). Checked January 13, 2008.Archived from the original source on August 25, 2011.
- A. McKellar investigated Molecular Lines from the Lowest States of Diatomic Molecules Composed of Atoms Probably Present in Interstellar Space in his publication titled “Publications of the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory” in 1941, volume 7, page 251. The bibliographic code for this publication is 1941PDAO. 7..251P.
- A. McKellar also discussed the Problems of Possible Molecular Identification for Interstellar Lines in his publication titled “Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific” in 1941, volume 53, pages 233-235. The DOI for this publication is 10.1086/125323 and the bibliographic code is 1941PASP. 53..233M.
- Zeldovich, J. B., Novikov, I. D. wrote a book titled “The structure and evolution of the universe” in 1975, published by Nauka. This book is 736 pages long and can be found on page 156.
- “Physics Today” published an article in 1950, issue 8, page 76.
- The “Krugosvet” Online Encyclopedia provides additional information.
- ↑ Shmaonov T. A. Methodology of absolute measurements of the effective temperature of radio emission with low equivalent temperature // Instruments and Technique of Experiment. 1957. № 1 С.83-86. 18.
- ↑Strukov I. A. et al.The Relikt-1 experiment – New results // Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. – 1992. – Vol. 258. – P. 37P-40P.
- ↑Smoot G. F. et al.Structure in the COBE differential microwave radiometer first-year maps // Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 – Letters. – 1992. – Vol. 396. – P. L1-L5.
- ↑ Missed Opportunities Analysis and Comments RIA Novosti Newswire
- ↑don_beaver – Relict and COBE: missed nobel prize
- ↑John Mather: “Relict had many valuable results, but ours were better”.
- ↑Skulachev D., They were the first.
- ↑Official ESA Planck mission website
Figure 2. Representation of the brightness distribution of microwave background radiation on the celestial sphere. The values in the figure indicate variations from the mean temperature of the microwave background in millikelvin (mK). During the formation of galaxies, there might have been another instance of matter heating. The spectrum of M.f.i. could also be altered due to the scattering of relic photons on hot electrons, which increases the energy of photons (refer to Compton scattering). The short-wave region of the spectrum experiences particularly significant changes in this scenario. Figure 1 illustrates one of the curves that demonstrate the potential distortion of the M. f. i. spectrum (represented by a dashed curve). The observed modifications in the M. f. i. spectrum indicate that the secondary heating of matter in the Universe occurred much later than recombination.
Cosmic rays, which consist of high-energy protons and nuclei, as well as ultrarelativistic electrons, play a crucial role in determining the radio emission of galaxies, including our own, in the meter range. These cosmic rays carry valuable information about the explosive phenomena that occur in stars and galactic nuclei, where they originate. Interestingly, recent studies have revealed that the lifetime of these high-energy particles in the Universe is heavily influenced by M.f. photons.
M.f. photons are low-energy but incredibly abundant, with a staggering billion times more of them than there are atoms in the Universe. This ratio remains constant even as the Universe expands. When ultra-relativistic electrons of cosmic rays collide with M.f. photons, there is a transfer of energy and momentum. The photon’s energy increases significantly, transforming it into an X-ray photon, while the electron’s energy undergoes only minor changes. This energy redistribution process occurs repeatedly, causing the electron to gradually lose all of its energy.
As a result of these interactions, a portion of the X-ray background radiation observed from satellites and rockets can be attributed to this phenomenon.
Protons and nuclei with extremely high energies are also influenced by M. f. i. photons: when they collide with these photons, nuclei split, and when they collide with protons, new particles are created (such as electron-positron pairs, mesons, and so on). As a result, the energy of protons rapidly decreases to a threshold energy level, below which the creation of particles becomes impossible based on the principles of conservation of energy and momentum. These processes are the reason why particles with energies of 10 eV are practically absent in cosmic rays, as well as the reason for the limited number of heavy nuclei. 20 eV and the small number of heavy nuclei.
Source:
Zeldovich J.B., “Hot” model of the Universe, UVN, 1966, vol. 89, в. 4, p. 647; Weinberg S., The First Three Minutes, translated from English, M., 1981.Relict radiation
Relict radiation, also known as cosmic microwave background radiation, is a unique phenomenon in the field of astrophysics. This radiation is believed to be the remnants of the early universe, dating back to the Big Bang. It is characterized by its low energy and long wavelength. Scientists have been able to detect and study this radiation using advanced technology and instruments, such as the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) and the Planck satellite. The study of relict radiation has provided valuable insights into the origins and evolution of the universe, as well as its current structure and composition. The discovery and analysis of relict radiation have been instrumental in supporting the Big Bang theory and shaping our understanding of the cosmos.
Electromagnetic radiation Synchrotron Cyclotron Braking Thermal Monochromatic Cherenkov Transient Radio emission Microwave Terahertz Infrared Visible Ultraviolet X-ray Gamma radiation Ionizing Relict Magneto-drift Two-photon Spontaneous Forced Relict radiation (also known as cosmic microwave background radiation or CMBR) [1] is a type of cosmic electromagnetic radiation that exhibits a high level of isotropy and has a spectrum characteristic of a perfect black body with a temperature of 2.725 K.
Theoretical predictions based on the Big Bang theory led to the anticipation of the existence of relic radiation. While certain aspects of the original theory have been revised, the underlying principles that allowed for the temperature of relic radiation to be predicted have remained unchanged. It is believed that relic radiation has persisted from the early stages of the universe and is uniformly distributed throughout. Experimental evidence confirming its existence was obtained in 1965. Alongside cosmological redshift, relic radiation is considered one of the primary pieces of evidence supporting the Big Bang theory.
Nature of the radiation
As per the theory of the Big Bang, in the early stages of the universe, there existed a high-temperature plasma consisting of photons, electrons, and baryons. These photons engaged in continuous interactions with other particles in the plasma, resulting in elastic collisions and energy exchange. Consequently, the radiation and matter achieved a state of thermal equilibrium, and the spectrum of the radiation matched that of a perfect black body.
As the Universe expanded, the cosmological redshift caused the plasma to cool, and at a certain point it became more energetically favorable for electrons to combine with protons (hydrogen nuclei) and alpha particles (helium nuclei) to create atoms. This process is known as recombination. It occurred when the plasma temperature was about 3000 K and the universe was approximately 400,000 years old[2]. At this point, photons were no longer scattered by neutral atoms and could freely travel through space without much interaction with matter. The surface at this moment is referred to as the surface of last scattering, which is the farthest object observable in the electromagnetic spectrum.
Due to the ongoing expansion of the universe, the temperature of the radiation has continued to decrease and is currently 2.725 K.
Initial serendipitous discovery
During the year 1941, while investigating the absorption of light originating from the star ξ Ophiuchi by CN molecules within the interstellar medium, McKellar made an observation that the absorption lines were not only present for the molecule’s ground rotational state, but also for its excited state. Furthermore, he observed that the ratio of the line intensities was proportional to the temperature of CN, which was measured to be 2.3 K. Unfortunately, the cause of this phenomenon remained unexplained at that time [3].
Prediction
The prediction of relic radiation was made by Georgi Gamow, Ralph Alpher, and Robert Herman in 1948 based on their development of the initial hot Big Bang theory. Additionally, Alpher and Hermann were able to determine that the temperature of the relic radiation should be 5 K, while Gamow predicted a temperature of 3 K [4]. Prior to this, there were some estimations of the temperature of space, but they had a few limitations. Firstly, they were only measurements of the effective temperature of space, without considering the adherence to Planck’s law for the radiation spectrum. Secondly, these estimations were contingent upon our specific location at the periphery of the Milky Way galaxy and did not account for the isotropy of the radiation. Furthermore, if the Earth were situated elsewhere in the universe, these estimations would yield significantly different outcomes.
Background
In 1955, Tigran Aramovich Shmaonov, a graduate student in radio astronomy at the Pulkovo Observatory, conducted an experiment under the supervision of renowned Soviet radio astronomers S. E. Khaykin and N. L. Kaidanovsky. Using a wavelength of 32 cm, they measured radio emission from space and successfully detected microwave noise emission [5]. Their findings led to the conclusion that the effective temperature of the background radio emission was approximately 4 ± 3 K. Notably, Shmaonov observed that the intensity of the radiation remained consistent regardless of the direction in the sky or the time. Following the defense of his thesis, Shmaonov published an article about his discovery in the journal “Instruments and Technique of Experiment” [6].
Unveiling
The findings of Gamow were not extensively deliberated. Nonetheless, they were once again achieved by Robert Dicke and Yakov Zeldovich during the initial 1960s. This development in 1964 spurred David Todd Wilkinson and Peter Roll, colleagues of Dicke at Princeton University, to construct the Dicke radiometer for gauging residual radiation.
In 1965, Bell Telephone Laboratories in Holmdale, New Jersey, developed a device similar to the Dicke radiometer. However, their intention was not to search for ancient radiation, but to conduct experiments in the fields of radio astronomy and satellite communications. During the calibration of their setup, they unexpectedly discovered that the antenna had an additional noise temperature of 3.5 K, which they couldn’t explain. Upon receiving a call from Holmdale, Dicke cleverly remarked, “Gentlemen, our efforts have paid off!” (or “Gentlemen, we’ve been beaten to the punch!”). After a collaborative discussion, the teams from Princeton and Holmdale came to the conclusion that this antenna temperature was the result of relic radiation. In recognition of their groundbreaking discovery, Penzias and Wilson were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978.
In 1983, the initial trial, known as RELICT-1, was conducted to gauge the relic radiation emitted from a spacecraft. In January 1992, based on the analysis of data from the RELIKT-1 experiment, Russian scientists made a groundbreaking announcement regarding the discovery of the anisotropy of relic radiation. However, in 2006, the Americans were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for a similar discovery made three months later, using data from the COBE experiment [7] [8].
The FIRAS far-infrared spectrophotometer, which was placed on NASA’s Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite, conducted the most precise measurements of the relic spectrum that have been recorded to date. These measurements confirmed that the spectrum corresponds to the radiation emitted by a completely black body with a temperature of 2.725 K.
The most detailed map of relic radiation was produced as a result of the efforts of the American WMAP spacecraft.
