According to the prevailing theory, approximately 14 billion years ago, the universe was devoid of any galaxies, stars, or planets. Instead, it consisted of an incredibly compact mass of incredibly hot plasma. This dense mass then underwent a massive expansion due to the event known as the Big Bang, which triggered a series of transformations and ultimately led to the emergence of celestial bodies and cosmic structures. This marked the onset of the universe’s evolutionary phase.
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9Lesson Plan:
Exploring the Universe
Exploring the vastness of the cosmos is the focus of cosmology, a branch of astronomy dedicated to understanding the origin and evolution of the universe. Scientifically speaking, the universe is a complex system with unique characteristics.
Later on, a scale was developed to measure the distances to celestial objects that are even farther away. This scale was created using observations of a specific kind of variable stars called cepheids, as well as measurements of the red shift in the spectra of astronomical bodies. By analyzing these spectral shifts, scientists discovered that the Universe is actually expanding, meaning that the gaps between clusters of galaxies are continuously getting bigger.
During the twentieth century, significant advancements were made in the field of cosmology. Albert Einstein played a central role in this progress, proposing several theories about the universe. Through his work on the gravitational field equation, he was able to provide empirical evidence for these theories. Einstein’s research was primarily focused on the general theory of relativity. He viewed the universe as a homogeneous, stationary, and isotropic space, with clear boundaries and positive curvature. However, the exploration of the fundamental principles of modern cosmology did not stop there.
In 1922, Alexander Friedman proposed the idea that the expansion of the Universe begins with the initial singularity.
Friedman’s assumption was validated following the detection of the cosmological redshift by Edwin Hubble, giving rise to the Big Bang theory, which continues to be relevant today. These aforementioned discoveries and ideas serve as the foundation of contemporary cosmology.
Furthermore, contemporary scientific cosmology has successfully determined the estimated age of the Universe to be approximately 13.8 billion years, as stated by experts.
Friedman’s cosmic realm
Friedman postulated that the cosmos exhibits an identical visage in every direction, with this property extending to every single point within it. Drawing upon this supposition and taking into account the overarching principles of general relativity, the scholar underscored that it would be misguided to anticipate a static universe.
When you gaze up at the sky, you can witness the luminous strip known as the Milky Way Galaxy. By directing your attention to more distant galactic systems, you’ll notice that their numbers are relatively consistent throughout outer space. This suggests that the Universe possesses a certain level of uniformity.
Friedman’s Universe model proved to be remarkably successful and aligned with Hubble’s observations. However, it didn’t gain recognition in Western countries until 1935, when similar models were devised by Howard Robertson and Arthur Walker. While the Friedmann Universe model only had one version, it served as the foundation for the creation of three others:
- The second model of the Friedmann Universe suggests that the expansion of the universe happens at a very slow pace, just enough to prevent contraction from occurring. According to this assumption, the expansion starts from a specific point and continues to increase over time. Although the rate of expansion eventually slows down, it never comes to a complete halt;
- Space is expanding at an astonishing rate, so much so that gravitational forces are unable to completely halt the process, although they can slightly decelerate it. The separation of galaxies also begins from a specific point of zero distance.
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After analyzing the information provided, we can deduce that Friedman’s model indicates that the universe is not infinite in terms of outer space, but rather that space itself is infinite. Due to the presence of powerful gravitational forces, space becomes curved and closed, similar to the spherical shape of a ball. If an individual were to travel along the surface of the Earth in a continuous direction, they would never encounter an obstacle that they couldn’t overcome, and they would never fall “off the edge of the Earth.” Eventually, they would simply return to the starting point of their journey. This concept is illustrated in Friedman’s model of the ever-changing universe.
“Redshift and Hubble’s Law”
Hubble’s Law has provided scientists with a groundbreaking understanding of the phenomenon known as redshift. By analyzing the gravitational displacement of cosmic bodies, researchers can determine whether they are moving closer to us or receding further away.
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In 1929, while using a 100-inch telescope to measure the spectral properties of the Herschel galaxy systems, Edwin Hubble made an intriguing discovery. Despite their similarities to the Milky Way, Hubble noticed that the spectra of the brightest stars in these galaxies were noticeably different from our own. Specifically, their spectra were shifted towards longer wavelengths, or the red side of the spectrum. This phenomenon became known as the redshift effect. Hubble also observed that the redshift within a single galaxy was relatively consistent, but varied significantly between different galaxies.
Hubble recognized a distinct pattern:
To put it simply: the redshift effect will be greater the farther away the observed galaxy is located. This is how Hubble’s law was formulated, which is represented by the formula:
Hubble’s constant is a parameter included in Hubble’s law. It has been utilized to establish the correlation between the distance to a specific galaxy or quasar and the rate of their recession. It is measured in km/s per megaparsec (Mpc). The value of Hubble’s constant varies over time, but the term “constant” implies that at a specific moment, the value of H will be consistent throughout the entire universe. The fluctuations are caused by the utilization of different computational techniques and the development of more advanced research instruments. Currently, the value of the constant is 70.1 (km/s)/Mpc.
By using Hubble’s law, scientists have been able to determine the theoretical age of the Universe. They did this by estimating the amount of redshift seen in the most distant objects in the universe, taking into account the fact that everything was once compressed into a single point. Interestingly, the Hubble age of the Universe is nearly identical to the age calculated by Friedman’s cosmological model – 13.8 billion years.
The redshift phenomenon in the Universe can be explained by its continuous expansion. To illustrate, imagine a person standing still in one spot as an airplane flies overhead. Over time, the sound of the airplane will gradually weaken and change in pitch, reflecting the increasing distance between the person and the aircraft.
Redshift produces a similar effect, but on a much larger scale. The further the arrival is from the observer, the more pronounced the change in the frequency of light emitted by it will be. When observed, redshift causes a shift of spectral lines in the radiation of stars towards the red end of the spectrum.
In the field of cosmology, there is also the concept of blueshift, which is the complete opposite of redshift. If there is a shift of spectral lines towards the blue end, it indicates that a galaxy is approaching us at a certain velocity.
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What is the Big Bang?
Until now, the origin of the universe remains an enigma that continues to captivate the minds of scientists. The quest to unravel the mysteries beyond our world is an ongoing endeavor, fueled by advancements in technology. While many questions have been answered, the question of how the universe came to be remains largely unanswered. Throughout the history of cosmology, numerous theories have been proposed. Some were quickly debunked, while others held some degree of truth and logicality.
One theory that is widely accepted and continues to be supported is the Big Bang theory. This concept was coined in 1949 by F. Hoyle and suggests that prior to the Big Bang, the entire universe existed in a vastly different state, concentrated into a singular point. Subsequent to the Big Bang, there were several stages of evolution in which space became populated with various particles, elements, objects, and structures.
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So what was the process of the universe’s evolution in the Big Bang Theory:
- The Era of Singularity – It is widely believed that prior to the formation of the Universe as we know it, the matter within it had extremely high values of density and temperature, approaching infinity, while tending towards zero. This poses a significant challenge to modern cosmology, as it is nearly impossible to ascertain what existed before the occurrence of the Big Bang. In theory, it is not possible for a substance to simultaneously possess infinite density and temperature. As a result, the singularity of the universe does not adhere to the laws of physics. Some scientists have proposed that the singularity never actually existed. Others have posited that the universe originated from a complete vacuum, or “nothingness,” brought about by the oscillations of the system. Additionally, it has been suggested that the Big Bang gave rise to a “Metagalaxy,” which can be seen as a sort of bubble within a higher density matter.
- The Planck epoch – following a colossal cosmic catastrophe, the primary matter commenced its expansion and gradual cooling. Furthermore, for the creation of various structures in the vast expanse of space, the simultaneous detonation had to occur ubiquitously. Within the timeframe of 0 to 10 -43 seconds, the temperature, density, and energy parameters of matter corresponded to the Planck constants (6.626 070 15⋅10-³⁴ J/s). The process of particle nucleation took place, marking the inception of the universe’s evolution.
- The era of grand unification spanned from 10.43 to 10.35 seconds. During this period, the formation of gravitational forces commenced, which further facilitated the creation of celestial bodies such as stars and planets. The primary matter ceased to possess uniform density, although it is premature to discuss any specific physical and chemical characteristics.
- The era of electroweak interaction: lasted from 10^-32 to 10^-12 seconds. During this period, fundamental particles such as the Higgs boson, Z-, and W-particles were created. The original form of matter in the pre-universe ceased to exist.
- The Quark era: lasted from 10^-12 to 10^-6 seconds. Matter in the universe began to consist of massless and structureless fundamental particles. At this point, the four fundamental interactions (gravitational, electromagnetic, strong, and weak) already existed separately.
- The hadron era: During this era, particles called hadrons, which undergo strong nuclear interactions, were formed from elementary particles. These hadrons then formed nucleons, such as neutrons and protons, which in turn formed atomic nuclei. This era lasted for no more than 100 seconds after the Big Bang.
- The lepton epoch lasted for a period of three minutes. This phase in the development of the Universe saw the formation of leptons and their subcategories, such as neutrinos, which play a crucial role in the future evolution of the cosmos.
- The proton era spanned a duration of 300,000 years. During this time, there was a redistribution of matter, with it taking precedence over radiation, resulting in a decrease in the rate of expansion of the Universe. Towards the end of this era, there was a movement of thermal photons.
- The Dark Ages endured for a period of 500 million years. During this time, there was a spread of hydrogen-helium mass and relic thermal radiation throughout the Universe. Not a single celestial object familiar to humanity had yet formed during this epoch.
- The epoch of reionization lasted for 300 million years. Due to gravitational forces, hydrogen and helium started to contract, leading to the birth of thermonuclear fusion processes. The first stars emerged and began to cluster, forming galaxies. Quasars, the most powerful sources of radiation and gravity, were found in the central part of these galactic spaces.
- The era of matter is one of the most fascinating stages in the evolution of the Universe. Stars started to develop protoplanetary disks around them, which eventually resulted in the formation of planetary systems. It was during this period that our solar system, along with all its planets, came into existence.
What is known as relic radiation?
Relic radiation, also known as cosmic microwave background radiation, is a term used in cosmology to describe a faint glow that permeates the entire Universe. This phenomenon was first introduced by Russian astrophysicist I.S. Shklovsky. Essentially, relic radiation is the residual energy left over from the initial formation of the Universe. It has been traveling through space for approximately 13.5 billion years, similar to the lingering warmth from a long-extinguished fire.
Essentially, relic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves that have propagated throughout the cosmos. Scientists believe that it originated about 380,000 years after the Big Bang. Some researchers propose that relic radiation may hold the key to understanding the origins of the first stars and galaxies.
The discovery of relic radiation is of great importance in modern cosmology. The finite speed of light allows researchers to observe distant cosmic bodies and structures, providing a glimpse into the past of the Universe. Many stars that are visible to the naked eye are located 10-100 light years away from Earth. This means that the light we see from these stars today actually originated from them 10-100 years ago. Astronomers are actively studying the Andromeda galaxy, which is the closest to us, but they are observing it as it was 2.5 billion years ago. Thanks to the unique properties of relic radiation, humanity is able to travel back in time and “witness” the state of the Universe after the Big Bang.
The future of the Universe
The question of what lies ahead for the Universe is a topic of great interest among cosmologists. One of the most significant characteristics of the Universe is its ongoing accelerated expansion. Based on this, there are two potential scenarios for the future evolution of outer space:
- The expansion of the Universe will continue indefinitely, leading to a gradual decrease in the average density of matter. Ultimately, this density will approach zero. In simpler terms, galaxy clusters will eventually disintegrate, and protons will eventually break down into quarks.
- At some point, the expansion of the Universe will slow down and reverse course, leading to compression. This compression will eventually result in a collapse, causing all cosmic matter to return to its original state – singularity.
There is a different assumption that due to the rapid increase in the speed of the Universe’s expansion, there will occur a Great Fracture – this phenomenon involves the rupture of all existing cosmic structures, including even the tiniest atoms.
The exploration of the Universe is a captivating and intriguing undertaking. Each day, scientists strive to elucidate new phenomena and processes, construct mathematical and cosmic models of structures and objects, and seek answers to the most enigmatic mysteries. This wealth of knowledge enables us to uncover the Universe’s past and anticipate its potential future.
The scope of radio radiation lies in contrast to gamma radiation and also extends indefinitely on one end – the side characterized by long waves and low frequencies.
Engineers have divided the electromagnetic spectrum into various sections. The shortest wavelengths are utilized for wireless data transmission, including internet, cellular, and satellite telephony. Meter, decimeter, and ultrashort waves (VHF) are allocated for local TV and radio stations. Short waves (SW) are employed for global radio communication as they can be reflected by the ionosphere and travel around the Earth. Medium and long waves are used for regional radio broadcasting. Ultra-long wavelengths (ULWs) ranging from 1 km to thousands of kilometers can penetrate saltwater and are utilized for submarine communication as well as mineral prospecting.
Radio waves possess extremely low energy, but they are capable of stimulating weak oscillations in the electrons of a metal antenna. These vibrations are subsequently amplified and recorded.
Microwaves
Microwaves are a subset of radio waves that sit next to the infrared band. They are also known as ultra-high frequency (UHF) radiation due to their high frequency within the radio spectrum.
Astronomers find the microwave band particularly fascinating as it contains evidence of the cosmic background radiation, also known as the relic radiation from the Big Bang. This radiation was emitted approximately 13.7 billion years ago, when the Universe’s hot matter became transparent to its own thermal radiation. Over time, as the Universe expanded, this relic radiation cooled and now has a temperature of 2.7 K.
The relic radiation reaches Earth from all directions, and astrophysicists today are studying variations in the microwave sky glow. These variations provide insights into the formation of galaxy clusters in the early Universe and help validate cosmological theories.
On our planet, microwaves have a variety of everyday applications, including warming up breakfast and facilitating cell phone conversations.
The Earth’s atmosphere does not obstruct microwaves, making them an effective means of communication with satellites. Additionally, there are ongoing efforts to utilize microwave beams for long-distance energy transmission.
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Crab Nebula’s radio spectrum observation
The Crab Nebula is the object of the greatest interest due to its status as the aftermath of a massive explosion of a dying star. The provided image showcases the appearance of the nebula when observed in the radio part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Radio waves are emitted by high-speed electrons as they traverse through a magnetic field. The magnetic field causes the electrons to change their direction, resulting in an accelerated movement. This rapid motion, in turn, leads to the emission of electromagnetic waves. The snapshot, based on data collected by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) in the United States, provides insights into the magnetic field structure within the Crab Nebula.
Initially, the matter distribution in the Universe was nearly uniform. However, tiny fluctuations in density, possibly even at the quantum level, led to the fragmentation of matter over millions and billions of years.
The illustration depicts the outcome of computer simulations that trace the evolution of the Universe. By calculating the movement of 10 billion particles under the influence of gravity over a span of 15 billion years, a porous structure resembling a sponge emerged. Galaxy clusters are concentrated at its nodes and edges, while vast emptiness, known as voids, exist between them – a term astronomers use to describe these barren regions.
Observational surveys of galaxy distribution in space yield similar findings. These surveys determine the coordinates and redshifts of hundreds of thousands of galaxies, allowing for the calculation of their distances.
However, achieving a satisfactory agreement between calculations and observations requires the assumption that visible matter, which emits light in the electromagnetic spectrum, only constitutes approximately 5% of the Universe’s total mass. The remaining mass is attributed to dark matter and dark energy, both of which only interact through gravity and whose true nature remains unknown. The exploration of these entities represents one of the most pressing objectives in contemporary astrophysics.
Quasar: a lively center of a galaxy.
When an excessive amount of matter accumulates onto a supermassive black hole situated at the core of a galaxy, an immense quantity of energy is released.
This energy propels some of the matter to nearly the speed of light and expels it as relativistic plasma jets in two opposite directions that are perpendicular to the axis of the accretion disk. When these jets collide with the intergalactic medium and decelerate, the incoming particles emit radio waves.
The radio image of the quasar displays areas of intense radio emission in red: at the center of the active galactic nucleus and on either side of it – two jets. The galaxy itself emits minimal radio waves in the radio spectrum.
There are various methods utilized to depict cosmic objects in radiation ranges that are not visible to the human eye. The two most commonly used techniques are artificial colorization and isoline mapping.
Artificial colorization is employed to simulate what an object would appear like if the human eye’s light-sensitive receptors were able to detect frequencies from the electromagnetic spectrum that are outside the range of visible colors.
Isoline maps are frequently employed to represent images captured at a specific wavelength, which is particularly prevalent in the radio spectrum. These maps are constructed using a similar principle to the contour lines on a topographic map, except instead of connecting points with fixed heights above the horizon, they connect points with the same level of radio brightness from the celestial source.
Receivers
Microwave Orbiter Probe WMAP
Rephrase:
Receivers
Microwave Orbiter Probe WMAP
The devices that receive signals are known as receivers. One such receiver is the Microwave Orbiter Probe WMAP.
The relic radiation, also known as the cosmic microwave background, creates radio signals that are nearly the same in every direction in the sky. However, it does have slight variations in intensity, amounting to about one thousandth of a percent. These variations are evidence of inconsistencies in the density of matter in the early universe, which eventually led to the formation of galaxy clusters.
The exploration of the microwave background began with ground-based radio telescopes and was furthered by the Soviet instrument Relikt-1, which was aboard the Prognoz-9 satellite in 1983. The American satellite COBE (Cosmic Background Explorer) continued this study in 1989. However, the most detailed map of the distribution of the microwave background across the celestial sphere was created in 2003 by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP).
The data present substantial constraints on theories of galaxy formation and the development of the Universe.
The ALMA radio telescope system is currently being built.
Like optical telescopes, the resolution of a radio telescope is directly related to its diameter, while its sensitivity is directly related to the area of its antenna. Due to restrictions in structural strength, it is not feasible to construct moving antennas larger than 100 meters. However, it is possible to combine the radiation collected by multiple smaller radio telescopes, effectively creating a synthesized large mirror using smaller pieces.
For a long time, radio astronomy has relied on interferometers that have antennas situated on different continents. More recently, the optical range has also embraced the interferometer principle, as seen in the VLT European Southern Observatory’s system of four 8-meter telescopes.
Schematic of a radio telescope
An optical telescope and a radio telescope share some similarities. Both have a parabolic mirror that collects waves, but there are differences due to the longer wavelength of radio waves. Unlike optical telescopes, radio telescopes cannot produce an image of an object at the focus because the pixel size must match the wavelength. Instead of a camera, a single radiometer is placed at the focus of a radio telescope to measure the intensity of the collected radiation. To generate an image, the radio telescope must scan a specific area of the sky line by line. The resulting representation is typically a map of radio brightness isolines, although a grayscale image can also be created.
Sights of the sky
The atmosphere in the 1.9 mm microwave range (WMAP).
The cosmic microwave background, also known as relic radiation, refers to the cooled glow of the Universe when it was still hot. It was initially discovered by A. Penzias and R. Wilson in 1965, earning them the Nobel Prize in 1978. The initial measurements revealed that this radiation is evenly distributed across the entire sky.
In 1992, the presence of anisotropy (non-uniformity) in relic radiation was announced. The Soviet Relikt-1 satellite was responsible for this discovery, which was later confirmed by the American COBE satellite (refer to Infrared Sky). COBE also determined that the spectrum of relic radiation closely resembles that of a blackbody spectrum. This achievement was recognized with the Nobel Prize in 2006.
Nonetheless, the precision of the COBE and Relict data fell short in terms of testing cosmological models. Consequently, in 2001, a more precise WMAP (Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe) was launched. By 2003, this probe had successfully constructed a comprehensive map illustrating the distribution of relic intensity throughout the celestial sphere. These data have since been instrumental in refining cosmological models and shaping our understanding of galaxy evolution.
Spectrum of relic radiation
The spectrum of relic radiation emerged during the early stages of the Universe, approximately 400 thousand years after its formation. As the Universe expanded and cooled, it gradually became transparent to its own thermal radiation. In its initial state, this radiation possessed a Planckian (blackbody) spectrum, characterized by a temperature of roughly 3000 K and falling within the range of near-infrared and visible light.
As the Universe continued to grow, the ancient radiation underwent a redshift, resulting in a decrease in its temperature. Currently, the relic radiation has a temperature of 2.7 K and it is categorized within the microwave and far infrared (submillimeter) sections of the spectrum. The diagram provides an approximate representation of the Planck spectrum corresponding to this particular temperature. The measurement of the relic radiation’s spectrum was initially conducted by the COBE satellite (refer to the Infrared sky), leading to the awarding of the Nobel Prize in 2006.
Radionebo operates at a frequency of 1420 megahertz (MHz), which corresponds to a wavelength of 21 centimeters (cm) (Dickey & Lockman)
Another method of detecting neutral atomic hydrogen in space is through the famous spectral line with a wavelength of 21.1 cm. This line is created by the superfine splitting of the hydrogen atom’s main energy level.
The energy of a non-excited hydrogen atom is determined by the alignment of the spins of its proton and electron. When the spins are parallel, the energy is slightly higher. Occasionally, these atoms can transition to a state with antiparallel spins, emitting a quantum of radio emission that carries away a small amount of excess energy. On average, this transition occurs for an individual atom once every 11 million years. However, the widespread distribution of hydrogen in the Universe allows for the observation of gas clouds at this frequency.
The wavelength of Radionebos is 73.5 cm, with a frequency of 408 MHz (Bonn).
This survey of the sky is the most comprehensive one to date, focusing on the longest wavelength available. The wavelength selected for this survey allows for the observation of a significant number of sources within our own Galaxy. Technical considerations also played a role in determining the chosen wavelength. The construction of this survey was made possible by the utilization of the 100-meter Bonn radio telescope, one of the largest fully-rotating radio telescopes in the world.
Microwave oven
A microwave oven, often colloquially shortened to microwave, is a kitchen appliance that heats food by emitting electromagnetic radiation in the microwave frequency range. This induces polar molecules in the food to rotate and produce thermal energy in a process known as dielectric heating. Microwave ovens heat foods quickly and efficiently because excitation is fairly uniform in the outer 25–38 mm of a dense (high water content) food item; food is more evenly heated throughout (except in thick, dense objects) than generally occurs in other cooking techniques.
An important benefit of using a microwave oven is its ability to evenly heat food throughout its entire volume, rather than just the surface.
Microwave radiation, which has a longer wavelength compared to infrared radiation, can penetrate deeper into the interior of food. Within the food, the electromagnetic vibrations stimulate the rotational levels of water molecules, resulting in the heating of the food. This process is responsible for microwave food drying, defrosting, cooking, and heating. Additionally, the alternating electric currents can induce high-frequency currents, which can occur in substances containing moving charged particles.
Nevertheless, it is not recommended to place sharp and slender metal items inside the microwave oven (particularly dishes with silver and gold-plated metal embellishments). Even a delicate rim of gilding on the plate’s edge can trigger a substantial electrical discharge, which has the potential to harm the device responsible for generating the electromagnetic wave in the oven (such as the magnetron or klystron).
Mobile phone
The operation of cellular telephony is founded on the utilization of a radio frequency (in the microwave spectrum) for communication between the subscriber and one of the base stations. Information is typically transmitted between base stations through digital cable networks.
The coverage area of a base station, also known as a cell, can range from several tens to several thousand meters. This range is determined by the landscape and signal strength, which is adjusted to ensure that there are not an excessive number of active subscribers within a single cell.
In the GSM standard, a maximum of 8 simultaneous telephone conversations can be provided by one base station. During mass events and natural disasters, the number of callers significantly increases, leading to overloads in base stations and disruptions in cellular communication. To address such situations, cellular operators have mobile base stations that can be quickly deployed to areas with large crowds.
There is ongoing debate regarding the potential harm of microwave radiation emitted by cell phones. During phone calls, the transmitter is in close proximity to a person’s head. Numerous studies conducted thus far have not been able to definitively establish the adverse effects of radio radiation from cell phones on health. While the possibility of weak microwave radiation affecting body tissues cannot be completely ruled out, there is no significant cause for concern.
TV
Television images are sent through waves of different lengths, specifically meter and decimeter waves. The brightness of each frame changes along lines in a specific manner.
A television station’s transmitter continuously broadcasts a radio signal with a precise frequency known as the carrier frequency. The TV set’s receiving circuit is tuned to this frequency, creating resonance that allows for the detection of weak electromagnetic oscillations. The image information is transmitted through the amplitude of these oscillations: higher amplitude corresponds to brighter sections of the image, while lower amplitude corresponds to darker sections. This process is known as amplitude modulation. Similarly, radio stations (excluding FM stations) transmit sound using a similar method.
The transition to digital television brings about changes in the coding of images, while still maintaining the fundamental concept of carrier frequency and its modulation.
Utilizing a satellite dish
A satellite dish is used to receive signals from a geostationary satellite in the microwave and VHF frequency bands. It operates on the same principle as a radio telescope, but unlike a telescope, the dish does not need to be movable. During installation, the dish is pointed towards the satellite, which remains fixed relative to the Earth’s structures.
One of the fascinating findings concerning the electromagnetic spectrum is the cosmic microwave background radiation. This phenomenon was stumbled upon serendipitously, although its existence had been predicted.
Chronicle of the cosmic microwave background radiation discovery
The saga of uncovering the cosmic microwave background radiation commenced in 1964. Researchers at the American laboratory Bell Telephone were in the process of developing a communication system utilizing an artificial satellite orbiting the Earth. This system was intended to operate on a wavelength of 7.5 centimeters.
Before the development of the system, it was not possible to utilize such short wavelengths for satellite radio communications, although they offer several advantages. Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson were the first to tackle this issue and had to ensure that there was no significant interference on the same wavelength or that the communicators were aware of any potential interference in advance.
Back then, it was believed that radio waves originating from space could only come from point objects such as radio galaxies or stars.
Using an extremely precise receiver and a rotating horn antenna, the scientists were able to effectively scan the entire expanse of the sky, much like a doctor using a stethoscope to listen to a patient’s chest.
A signal originating from nature
As soon as the antenna was directed towards a specific point in the sky, a curved line immediately appeared on the oscilloscope screen. This was a typical signal emitted by a natural source. The experts were probably taken aback by their good fortune, as the very first point they measured turned out to be a source of radio emission!
However, regardless of the direction in which they directed their antenna, the outcome remained unchanged. The scientists conducted multiple checks on the equipment, confirming that it was in excellent working condition. Eventually, they came to the realization that they had stumbled upon a hitherto undiscovered natural occurrence: the existence of centimeter-long radio waves throughout the entire universe..
If we possessed the ability to perceive radio waves, the sky would present itself to us as emanating a radiant glow spanning from one end to the other.
The publication of Penzias and Wilson’s discovery became widely known.
Following their lead, scientists from various countries embarked on a quest to locate the origins of these enigmatic radio waves. Equipped with antennas and receivers specifically designed for this purpose, they meticulously scanned the skies, aiming at different points, only to find that the intensity of radio emissions at a wavelength of 7.5 centimeters remained consistent throughout. It was almost as if the radio waves were uniformly distributed across the entire sky.
Scientists’ calculations determined relict radiation
A. G. Doroshkevich and I. D. Novikov, Soviet scientists who accurately predicted the existence of relict radiation even before its discovery, conducted the most intricate computations. They meticulously considered all the available sources of radiation in our Universe and also accounted for the evolution of radiation emitted by various celestial bodies over time. The outcome of their calculations revealed that in the centimeter wave region, the overall contribution of these radiations is minimal. Consequently, they concluded that the observed glow in the sky cannot be attributed to these sources.
Meanwhile, further calculations have revealed that the density of dispersed radiation is incredibly high. Let’s take a look at the comparison between the mass of photon sour cream (as scientists have referred to this mysterious radiation) and the mass of all matter in the entire Universe. If all the matter from every visible galaxy were evenly distributed throughout the entirety of space, there would only be one hydrogen atom per every three cubic meters of space (for simplicty, we will assume that all stellar matter is composed of hydrogen).
Simultaneously, each cubic centimeter of actual space contains approximately 500 photons of radiation. Although this may not seem like much, even when comparing the quantities of matter and radiation directly in terms of their masses. So, where did such intense radiation originate?
During his era, the Soviet scientist A. A. Friedman, while solving the well-known equations formulated by Einstein, made a groundbreaking discovery – our Universe is constantly expanding. This revelation was soon confirmed when American astronomer E. Hubble observed the phenomenon of galaxies moving away from each other. By extrapolating this phenomenon back in time, it is possible to estimate the moment when all the matter in the Universe existed in an extremely small volume, with a density incomparably greater than what it is now.
As the Universe expands, the wavelength of each quantum also increases proportionally, causing the quantum to, in a sense, “cool down” – the shorter the wavelength of a quantum, the “hotter” it is. In today’s context, the centimeter radiation has a brightness temperature of approximately 3 degrees on the Kelvin absolute scale.
RemnantsAs is well-known, the remains of the oldest living beings that have survived until the present time are referred to as remnants. The smallest units of centimeter radiation are undoubtedly the most ancient of all possible remnants. In reality, their formation can be traced back to an era approximately 15 billion years ago from our perspective.
Understanding the Universe brought about relic radiation
Very little can be said about the nature of the substance at the initial moment, when its density was infinitely large. However, scientists already have a fairly good understanding of the phenomena and processes that occurred in the Universe the Universejust one second after its inception and even earlier, up to 10~8 seconds. This is what we now refer to as relic radiation relic radiation.
After the initial moment, one second had elapsed. The substance of our Universe reached a scorching temperature of 10 billion degrees Celsius and was composed of a unique mixture. It contained relic quanta, electrodes, positrons, neutrinos, and antineutrinos. The density of this chaotic composition was incredibly high – surpassing a ton per cubic centimeter. In such a confined space, neutrons and positrons collided ceaselessly with electrons, causing protons to convert into neutrons and vice versa.
However, the most abundant components were the quanta – outnumbering neutrons and protons by a staggering factor of 100 million. Naturally, under such extreme density and temperature, complex atomic nuclei could not exist, as they would decay instantaneously. One hundred seconds ticked away, and the Universe continued to expand, gradually reducing its density and cooling down.
Positrons were on the verge of vanishing, while neutrons transformed into protons. The hydrogen and helium atomic nuclei commenced their formation. Calculations performed by researchers indicate that 30 percent of neutrons merged to generate helium nuclei, while the remaining 70 percent persisted as solitary entities and evolved into hydrogen nuclei. Throughout these reactions, fresh quanta emerged, yet their amount bore no resemblance to the initial quantity, thereby implying that it remained unaltered.
The expansion of the Universe continued, with the density of the “porridge” decreasing as the linear distance increased. Time passed, and after three million years, the temperature of the “porridge” dropped to 3-4 thousand degrees, approaching the density of matter we know today. However, the formation of matter clumps that could give rise to stars and galaxies was still not possible due to the intense radiant pressure pushing them apart. Even helium and hydrogen atoms remained ionized, with electrons and protons existing separately. It was only towards the end of this three-million-year period that the first thickening started to appear in the cooling “porridge”, although they were initially scarce.
During a certain phase in the expansion of the Universe, the process of forming new condensations became exceedingly difficult because the previously dense “porridge” had become too “liquefied”. Approximately 5 percent of matter managed to combine, while the remaining 95 percent dispersed throughout the expanding expanse of the Universe. As a result, the once highly energetic quanta that constituted the relic radiation became “scattered”.
In this manner, the nuclei of hydrogen and helium atoms, which were originally part of the aforementioned “porridge”, were also dispersed.
Hypothesis on the Formation of the Universe
Here is a hypothesis regarding the formation of the Universe: the majority of the matter in our Universe does not compose of planets, stars, and galaxies, but rather consists of intergalactic gas. This gas is composed of 70 percent hydrogen and 30 percent helium, with one hydrogen atom per cubic meter of space.
Following this, the Universe underwent a phase of protostars and transitioned into a stage of familiar matter, including ordinary spiral galaxies, regular stars, and our very own Sun.
Some of these stars have developed planetary systems, and it is possible that life originated on at least one of these planets. Through the course of evolution, this life eventually gave rise to intelligence. The frequency of stars surrounded by planetary systems in the vastness of space remains unknown to scientists. Additionally, they cannot determine how frequently life arises on planets.
The question of how frequently the plant of life blooms with the abundant flower of reason remains unresolved. The current hypotheses that attempt to answer these questions are more like unfounded speculations. However, scientific progress is currently advancing at an accelerated pace.
Not too long ago, scientists had no understanding of how the universe originated. The discovery of relic radiation approximately 70 years ago provided some insight into this matter. Presently, humanity lacks the necessary evidence to provide definitive answers to the aforementioned questions.
Exploration of outer space, including visits to the Moon and other planets, has yielded new information. These facts are followed by rigorous conclusions, rather than mere hypotheses.
Relict radiation provides evidence of the homogeneity of the Universe.
What other information do relic rays, which are witnesses to the formation of our universe, provide to scientists? A.A. Friedman, by solving one of Einstein’s equations, discovered the expansion of the universe.
In order to solve Einstein’s equations, it was necessary to establish the initial conditions. Friedman made the assumption that the universe is both homogeneous and isotropic, with matter being uniformly distributed. However, for the past 5-10 years since Friedman’s discovery, the question of whether his assumption was correct has remained unanswered.
Interestingly, the substance of the Universe, known as intergalactic gas, is evenly distributed throughout. This distribution is similar to the distribution of relic quanta. The detection of relic radiation presents an incredible opportunity to peer into the distant past, beyond the existence of our Earth, Sun, Galaxy, and even the Universe itself.
Similar to a remarkable telescope that can be directed in any direction, the discovery of relic radiation allows us to glimpse into the far-reaching future. This future is so distant that it foresees the absence of Earth, Sun, and even the Galaxy.
Here we will discuss the phenomenon of the Universe’s expansion and how the stars, galaxies, dust, and gas clouds that make it up are moving away from each other in space. Will this process go on forever? Or will the expansion eventually slow down, stop, and be reversed into compression? Could the Universe’s successive compressions and expansions be considered as pulsations of matter, indestructible and eternal?
The answers to these questions primarily depend on the amount of matter present in the Universe. If the total gravitational force is strong enough to overcome the expansion’s inertia, then contraction will inevitably replace expansion, causing the galaxies to gradually come closer together. However, if the gravitational forces are not sufficient to brake and overcome the expansion’s inertia, our Universe is in trouble: it will disperse into space!
Is there a greater issue than the impending destiny of our entire Universe? The exploration of relic radiation has provided science with the chance to address it. Moreover, it is conceivable that additional investigations will lead to its resolution.
You might be familiar with the concept of cosmic microwave background radiation, which is also referred to as relic radiation. Additionally, you may have come across discussions about the enigmatic cold expanse that pervades the cosmos, an enigma that eludes scientific explanation.
Now, let’s discuss microwave background radiation one thing at a time. By the way, it goes by other complex names like cosmic background radiation, cosmic microwave radiation, and various other variations. However, in all cases, we are referring to the same phenomenon. Background microwave radiation, or CMB, exists throughout the entire Universe. The abbreviation CMB derives from the cosmic microwave background.
This radiation permeates everything in the Universe. It has nearly equal intensity in all directions. No matter where you look, using a powerful telescope, you will always come across this radiation. So, where does it originate from? The answer is that it is the residual heat from the Big Bang.
From the beginning of the 20th century, there have been two ideas attempting to elucidate the composition of our cosmos. One posits that the universe is incredibly expansive. The portion of the universe that is within our view at present forms a sphere with a radius of approximately 45 billion light years. Yet, this expanse of space is but a minuscule fragment of the entire universe. The other notion suggests that light travels at a constant velocity. Consequently, the more deeply we gaze into space, the further back in time our observations extend.
The oldest light in the universe
The Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) extends beyond the reach of our telescopes, surpassing even the most distant galaxies we can detect. This ancient light, which is the oldest and most remote light we can observe, commenced its journey approximately 14 billion years ago, long before the existence of Earth, the Sun, or even the Milky Way. It serves as a testament to the early stages of the Universe, a time when it was not the dark and frigid expanse we observe in the night sky today.
During this period, the Universe was a tempestuous maelstrom of radiation and elementary particles. All the celestial bodies we see around us, such as planets, stars, and galaxies, emerged from these particles as the cosmos expanded and cooled. This is precisely why this lingering relic radiation holds such significance for cosmologists and researchers.
Billions of years ago, when this light emerged, it possessed the intense heat and brilliance akin to that of a celestial body’s surface. However, over time, the expansion of the universe has significantly enlarged the expanse of space. Consequently, the wavelength of the initial light has elongated, leading to a decrease in frequency and a shift towards the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. As a result, the relic radiation has gradually cooled to its present temperature, which stands a mere 2.73 degrees above absolute zero.
A massive chill zone
Hence, relic radiation can be found in all directions. Despite its uniform distribution, there are notable irregularities. Among these, the most significant and striking is an area of space known as the Eridanus Super Void, also referred to as the Great Cold Spot. Its temperature is only 0.00015 degrees lower than its surroundings, yet the cause of this phenomenon remains unknown. Various hypotheses have been proposed to explain this anomaly.
One of the prevailing theories suggests that the Great Cold Spot is the result of a cosmic vacuum. Another hypothesis suggests that it could be a remnant, a mark left behind by the collision of universes…
And there’s a rather limited quantity of galaxies. Consequently, apart from being frigid, it is essentially devoid of matter.
Eridanus’ extraordinary void presents a predicament for scientists. The reason being that the prevailing cosmological framework fails to adequately account for the existence of this particular region.
NASA. 1965. Radio astronomer Robert Wilson readies himself to capture ancient radiation
Scientists from the United States have recently revealed a groundbreaking finding – they claim to have unearthed a remarkable “communication from the Supreme Being”. Renowned astrophysicists Stephen Hsu and Anthony Zee have discovered this extraordinary message, which is said to be concealed within relic radiation. These electromagnetic waves are remnants of the universe’s inception, making them the oldest in existence.
Elena Kudryavtseva
NASA photo
During a time of great turmoil, the creator conveyed a message. It happened to be the three thousandth year since the inception of the Big Bang. Throughout this extensive period, the Universe existed as a tumultuous plasma, with individual elementary particles unable to coalesce into atoms due to the high temperatures. Any light emitted by this plasma was immediately reabsorbed. The year 3000 proved to be a monumental milestone in the Universe’s history. The temperature subsided to a level we are familiar with, allowing the formation of the first atoms and the transformation of the boiling mixture into a gas. At this point, the Universe became transparent, enabling light to burst forth. This particular light is known as relic radiation. After enduring 14 billion years, this ancient light has gradually diminished in intensity and transformed into feeble radio waves.
MESSAGE FROM OUTER SPACE
– According to Valery Rubakov, a prominent member of the Institute of Nuclear Physics and an academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, relic radiation consists of waves with frequencies ranging from 500 MHz to 500 GHz. This radiation permeates throughout the cosmos, with every cubic centimeter of space containing 500 ancient photons. However, detecting these photons requires exceptionally sensitive antennas. The most effective approach to capturing relic radiation is by doing so directly in space, where extraneous noise is significantly reduced.
The American probe WMAP (Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe) has captured relict radiation directly in space for a duration of six years. Recently, NASA experts have decoded the data from the last three years of observations and created a detailed map illustrating the temperature distribution of relict radiation. On this map, areas of cold temperature are represented by the color blue, while warm areas are represented by the color red. It is this unusual temperature distribution that has led astrophysicists Hsu and Zee to formulate their hypothesis. They propose that this distribution is actually a binary code, used by the Creator to encrypt a message. Scientists estimate that this message contains approximately 10 kilobytes of information, which is equivalent to two pages of text. The proponents of this idea believe that the message contains the fundamental laws of physics, although there are some who argue that the Creator may have simply left behind some sort of identifying mark, such as a “product number.”
In one way or another, decoding the message necessitates a more comprehensive temperature distribution map of relic radiation. This will become possible once Planc, Europe’s next-generation probe, is launched next year.
CREATION FROM NOTHINGNESS
The current temperature distribution map appears quite stunning – red and blue dots blend together on the celestial sphere, forming unseen continents. I gaze intently at the cluster of dots, hoping that the “message from the Creator of the Universe” will be revealed to me without having to decipher the binary code.
– Who is this Creator?! What message?! – Rubakov is puzzled. – Relict radiation seamlessly aligns with the existing worldview, which leaves no room for extraterrestrial forces.
He also examines the map, but instead of seeing the hand of the Creator, he observes various density disturbances that were present in the early stages of the Universe.
– If the relic radiation was once scattered into space, why does it experience fluctuations in temperature? – I inquire of the academic.
– The key is that the density in the Universe is not uniform. Nowadays, this non-uniformity is evident – there are clusters of galaxies in some areas, while in others, matter is scarce. However, even back then, when the Universe was only three thousand years old, the density varied. The “hotter” photons that reach us originate from regions where matter was denser and hotter. Nevertheless, the disparity between “hot” and “cold” relic photons is minuscule – approximately one hundred thousandth of a degree.
During the early stages of the universe, the term “high density medium” didn’t refer to a solid mass but rather to radio waves. These waves, which possessed a high level of intensity, attracted new elementary particles to themselves, causing them to accumulate like a snowball. By utilizing the WMAP map, which reveals the origins of “hot” photons, scientists are able to calculate the redistribution of matter throughout the universe.
“Take a look,” Rubakov points to a cluster of red dots, “if there was a significant disturbance in this area, it likely evolved into a cluster of galaxies over time. This image essentially captures the universe as it existed three thousand years ago.”
Exploring the Historical Findings
– Even back then, newspapers published articles about this event and referred to these radio maps as the image of God, – later recalled one of the participants of the “Relikt” experiment, Michael Sazhin. – However, it should be noted that the first person to witness the “image of God” was our fellow countryman Andrei Bryukhanov.
EMPTY FURY
Ever since, the astrophysicists worldwide have relied heavily on the “Creator’s message” as their primary source of information. This invaluable resource has allowed them to accurately determine the age of our Universe – a staggering 13.7 billion years (a significant correction from the previous estimate of two or three billion years). Furthermore, it has been revealed that our universe is in fact flat, debunking the previous notion of its spherical shape.
There is another exciting development that has been confirmed today. The latest WMAP data provides evidence for the existence of a stage of inflation in the universe. The inflationary stage refers to the moments just before the Big Bang, when there was only a vacuum. During this time, weak sound and gravitational waves passed through the vacuum, similar to ripples on water. However, the rapid expansion of the universe greatly amplified these disturbances, transforming them into large waves that eventually became the building blocks for matter.
– The most recent WMAP studies have revealed that they were able to detect the “imprint” of these ancient gravitational waves in the relic radiation, – explains Rubakov. – Can you imagine the significance of confirming the inflationary theory?
– This confirmation means that everything we observe today, including ourselves, is a result of fluctuations in the vacuum.
– There are numerous scientists in the field of physics who hold a belief in God," Rubakov ultimately concedes. – However, none of them will pursue the existence of God in such a straightforward manner.
The Genesis
Prior to assuming its current configuration, the Universe underwent eight phases of evolution
1 The Planckian era.
10 -43 seconds. During this time, the gravitational interaction is separated, and the Universe’s size is approximately 1 -35 meters. At 10 -37 seconds, there is a rapid expansion of the universe known as inflation.
2 The Epoch of Great Unification
Within 10 to 35 seconds, the strong and electroweak interactions separate from each other.
3 The Hadronic Epoch
Within 10 to the power of -6 seconds, proton-antiproton pairs annihilate each other. Quarks and antiquarks no longer exist as independent particles.
4 The Lepton Epoch
Within 1 second, hydrogen nuclei start to form and the fusion of helium nuclei begins.
5 The Era of Nucleosynthesis
After 3 minutes, the composition of the universe consists of 75 percent hydrogen and 25 percent helium, with small amounts of heavy elements present.
6 The Era of Radiation
After 1 week, the radiation in the universe begins to thermalize.
7 The Age of Matter
After 300,000 years, the hydrogen nuclei and electrons recombine, causing the universe to become transparent to radiation. Matter starts to appear in the universe after 10,000 years.
