What are the constituents of the universe?

Equipment:
-Sky-Watcher Dob 14 (350/1600) Retractable SynScan GOTO telescope
-Barlow NPZ PAG 3-5x lensblock
-atmospheric dispersion corrector ZWO ADC
-ZWO IR-cut light filter
-astronomical camera ZWO ASI 183MC.
Location: Caucasus Mountain Observatory, Moscow State University, Karachay-Cherkess Republic.

Here is a section from the initial video:

The Jellyfish Nebula captured using three narrow-band filters

Comet C/2023 P1 (Nishimura) – A Fresh Discovery in the Night Sky

Comets are unexpected visitors. While the familiar ones, which we have known for a long time, can sometimes disappoint us (which is not surprising, as they have had time to deplete and melt with repeated approaches to the Sun), newly discovered comets often bring a bright and spectacular display. However, this is not always the case.

The comet C/2023 P1 was first observed by Japanese astronomer Hideo Nishimura on the night of August 11-12, 2023. The comet was located in the constellation Gemini (and it still is). It can be said that the discovery of the comet was a stroke of luck, as finding a faint, hazy object (with a magnitude of 12) in the brightening pre-dawn sky is a great stroke of luck and a testament to the highest level of professionalism.

The constellation Gemini was the location of comet C/2023 P1 on the morning of August 12, 2023 when it was first discovered.

However, the comet’s brightness increased with each passing night. After a week, it has already surpassed 10 stars in brightness. It can now be observed using medium-power amateur telescopes. Although Nishimura’s comet is still best seen before dawn, the overall seeing conditions have slightly improved since its initial discovery.

What comes after?

On September 18, 2023, the comet will reach its perihelion, the point in its orbit that is closest to the Sun, at a distance of 33 million kilometers from its luminous surface. This is approximately twice as close as Mercury, although Mercury is a solid rock while the comet is composed of ice. Due to the comet’s icy composition, it will begin to actively melt and vaporize well before reaching perihelion. This process is already underway, and astronomers have observed a small tail, measuring only 8-10 angular minutes in length, which consists of gases and dust emitted from the comet’s heated nucleus.

On the morning of August 18, 2023, the comet C/2023 P1 can be found in the Gemini constellation.

At the moment, the comet is currently passing through the Earth’s orbit and is located on the opposite side of the Sun from us. This means that the distance between the Earth and the comet is quite significant, measuring about one and a half astronomical units. However, this distance is subject to rapid change.

In the sky, on the morning of September 4, 2023, the comet C/2023 P1 will be situated in the constellation of Cancer. It will be positioned near the boundary with the constellation of Leo, specifically close to the asterism known as “Lion’s Head,” which serves as a prominent landmark for observers. Additionally, the bright planet Venus will also be present in the same constellation. By September 4, 2023, the comet’s brightness will have reached the 7th magnitude, making it easily visible with binoculars.

On the morning of September 9, 2023, comet C/2023 P1 will be located 1 degree west of the star Adhafera (Zeta Leo), and its brightness will have reached the 6th magnitude. Under ideal conditions, such as in mountainous, desert, or steppe regions, the comet will be visible to the naked eye.

On September 9, 2023, in the constellation Leo, you can find comet C/2023 P1 in the morning sky.

Unfortunately, the distance between the comet and the Sun will decrease to 22 degrees, but the comet will rise higher above the ecliptic. Despite the small elongation, the comet will be visible for at least one and a half hours, and possibly up to two hours.

In the coming days, the brightness of the comet will continue to increase, but it will be more challenging to observe due to the decreasing angular distance from the Sun.

By the morning of September 12th, the comet’s brightness will reach a magnitude of 5 stars, and its elongation will decrease to 17 degrees. Meanwhile, the comet will still be positioned above the Sun, providing an opportunity to spot it in the morning twilight near the star Zosma (Delta Leo).

The constellation Leo is where comet C/2023 P1 will be located on the morning of September 12, 2023.

By September 15, the comet will be getting closer to the 2nd magnitude star Denebola (Beta Leo). At this point, the comet will only be slightly dimmer, approximately 3rd stellar magnitude. However, it will be quite challenging to observe both celestial bodies against the bright dawn sky.

The location of comet C/2023 P1 in the early morning of September 15, 2023 within the Orion constellation

During perihelion, it is estimated that the comet will have a brightness of approximately 2nd magnitude. In the evening, shortly after dusk, observers in the northern hemisphere will be able to spot the comet in the northern region of the Virgo constellation. However, in the southern hemisphere, viewing the comet will be either impossible or extremely challenging due to the comet’s higher declination compared to that of the Sun.

On the evening of September 18, 2023, comet C/2023 P1 will be located in the constellation Virgo as it reaches perihelion.

As the days go by, the comet will gradually move further into the southern celestial hemisphere and will cross the equator around the same time as the Sun, just one day before the autumnal equinox on September 21, 2023. The brightness of the comet will decrease to 4.5m.

The location of comet C/2023 P1 in the night sky on September 21, 2023, within the Virgo constellation.

On October 1, comet C/2023 P1 Nishimura can be observed approximately 40 minutes after sunset on the border between the Virgo and Raven constellations. However, in order to view it, one would need to be situated in Australia or the mid-latitudes of South America, or perhaps at the southern tip of Africa. It is worth noting that the comet’s brightness will only be around 7.5m, so purchasing tickets solely for this purpose may not be the most practical decision.

On the evening of October 1, 2023, comet C/2023 P1 can be found at the border of the constellations Virgo and Raven, visible from Cape Town, South Africa.

By mid-October, the comet will continue its journey southward and enter the tail section of the Hydra constellation. Its brightness will decrease to the 10th magnitude, making it difficult to observe, even in the southern hemisphere. Ultimately, its visibility will cease for astronomy enthusiasts all around the world.

When will the comet come back?

Not in our sight. Currently, the orbital elements have only been estimated. This level of precision is sufficient for predicting the comet’s position in the sky for the next few months, but we do not know the exact duration of its orbit. Despite being categorized as a long-period comet, its orbit has an eccentricity of one, indicating that the comet’s trajectory is close to being parabolic or even already is. This means that the comet may return to the Sun in a million years or possibly never return at all.

The path of comet C/2023 P1 Nishimura from August 12 to November 1, 2023.

All charts are created with the Stellarium software.

The Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite in 1957, an event that is well-known to all. Since then, numerous space agencies, private companies, and research institutes have been expanding their presence in the solar system. Over time, they have conquered countless frontiers, making it impossible to list them all. While there seems to be plenty of space for everyone in this vast expanse, certain areas of local “real estate” are particularly enticing. One such example is the Lagrange points, which have captured the attention of all interested parties. These points are named after a mathematician from the 18th century who determined their location. They are highly valuable as unique havens of stability in our ever-changing and turbulent corner of the cosmos.

However, our system does not have many typical “parking lots.” The interaction between massive bodies creates five Lagrangian points for each pair of objects. For instance, the Sun has five points of contact with each planet, and each planet has the same number of “contacts” with its satellites. When we add them all up, we find that there are over 1000 Lagrangian points in our system. Nonetheless, only a handful of them are actually useful for space explorers. Most of these points are challenging to access, and as we will discover later, many of them are not very stable. Currently, only two of these locations are actively being used, but this could change in the future.

The issue of what can be placed in a specific Lagrange point is quite fascinating here. Let’s examine those formed by the gravitational interaction between the Sun and the Earth. L1 is situated approximately 1.5 million kilometers from our planet, between the two aforementioned celestial bodies. With an unobstructed view of the star, it serves as an optimal location for observing the Sun.

The Deep Space Climate Observatory is a spacecraft from the United States that is positioned at Lagrangian point 1 to observe both the Sun and Earth.

Lagrangian point 2 is located on the opposite side of the Earth at the same distance. This positioning ensures reliable protection from sunlight and offers unique opportunities for observing the cosmos from a different perspective. In 2022, the highly anticipated James Webb telescope, which astronomers have been waiting for for two decades, began its operations in this location.

L3 is located in the most enigmatic spot, directly opposite the Sun in Earth’s orbit. It is the sole point in the entire Universe that is completely invisible from the planet’s surface, even in theory. As a result, it has frequently served as a source of inspiration for science fiction authors, although scientists themselves find little practical value in it.

L4 and L5 exhibit some slight differences compared to the previous Lagrangian points. The distinguishing factor lies in the fact that the first three points in each Lagrangian set possess a minor degree of instability, causing the objects within them to gradually shift sideways. While it is possible to maintain their position with some effort, it does require additional measures. In certain pairs of celestial bodies, the stability of L4 and L5 may not be particularly high, especially if their masses differ by less than a factor of 25. However, within the Sun-Earth system, where the star is significantly more massive than the planet, these points demonstrate remarkable stability. Furthermore, they appear to attract various objects, with the most striking examples being L4 and L5 in the Sun-Jupiter system, which have accumulated thousands of asteroids.

Each Lagrangian point within our solar system possesses its own unique characteristics. Some of these points could serve as valuable sources for collecting building materials, particularly if we consider drifting asteroids to fall into this category. Others could potentially function as refueling stations, providing the necessary fuel for spacecraft venturing into the vastness of space. It’s even plausible to imagine the establishment of human colonies within these points. Of course, such concepts remain speculative and are likely to remain so for the foreseeable future, given the current state of affairs on Earth. Nevertheless, there’s no harm in indulging in a little bit of dreaming, is there?

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I used to think of the universe as something incredibly abstract. Like space – something that is immensely distant, beyond reach of our hands, invisible to our eyes, and impossible to access. In reality, anyone and everyone can interact with the universe – right this very moment.

What is the Universe and how can we make contact with it?

To gain an understanding of how to make contact with the Universe, it is essential to comprehend the nature of what we seek to touch. The Universe encompasses everything that exists. Every single aspect of our physical reality is a constituent part of the Universe:

From the tiniest grain of sand on a sandy beach to the tea filling your cup – each of these elements represents a small fragment of the vast Universe. This includes both you and me. Therefore, as you sit on your sofa, you are already in direct contact with the Universe.

The equation that explains everything

Both philosophers and physicists share a common aspiration: to discover a single equation that can fully elucidate the mysteries of the universe. This equation would encompass all knowledge, providing answers to every question imaginable. It would unveil the purpose of existence, foresee future events, and illuminate every past moment.

Regrettably, up to this point. nobody has managed to deduce this equation. And it remains uncertain if we ever will. In Douglas Adams’ remarkable novel “The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy”, however, there exists a solution to the ultimate inquiry regarding existence, the cosmos, and everything – and that solution is “42”. All that remains within the book is to ascertain the query.

Perhaps that is the issue we face – our attempt to discover the solutions, but our current level of intelligence prevents us from adequately formulating the appropriate query.

What hinders the ability to forecast the future?

One of the most intriguing queries in existence is the reason behind our inability to predict the future.

Actually, it doesn’t seem that challenging – all you have to do is be aware of the precise location of each point in the universe at any given moment.. And the velocity at which it’s moving.

However, it’s simply not feasible to compute it. There’s a limitation in computing power, and then there’s the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Heisenberg’s principle of uncertainty. Its core concept is straightforward: it’s not possible to accurately determine both the velocity and coordinates of a quantum particle.

If you have foreknowledge of the future, life loses its purpose. Therefore, it is advantageous not to have that knowledge.

The cosmos. What can be more enigmatic? Even our ancestors, the ancient people, thousands of years ago, were gazing at the celestial bodies. What thoughts were running through their minds? What emotions were they experiencing? I recall when I was about ten years old, lying on the beach at night, gazing at the shimmering of distant galaxies. Yes, galaxies, because each star is nothing but a stellar body that has its own system of planets revolving around it for millennia.

Put simply, our universe encompasses all the diverse elements that surround us:

The cosmos can be an incredibly inhospitable place for Homo sapiens, given that even on Earth we face the constant risk of combustion at temperatures of 70 degrees Celsius or freezing at similarly extreme negative temperatures. And that’s not to mention the vacuum, which humans are ill-equipped to survive in without specialized protective gear.

The Theory of the Universe’s Origin

Undoubtedly, the most famous explanation for how the universe came into existence is The Big Bang. It’s almost unfathomable: the explosion happened in an instant from a single, referred to as a “singularity point.” This extraordinary location had an infinite temperature and density, and the laws of physics that we know today simply did not apply there. This extraordinary event occurred 14 billion years ago, but its effects can still be observed today – the Hubble telescope reveals that galaxies are continuously moving away from each other, indicating that the universe is still expanding. So, what lies beyond it?

It’s amusing, but it’s conceivable that on some celestial body, a doppelganger is responding to the same inquiry as myself.)

Oh, what an inquiry. When I was approximately 7 years old, I watched a program on National Geographic regarding our galaxy and its position in the cosmos. I didn’t comprehend the word “cosmos” so I inquired with my grandmother. Grandma explained that it’s where we reside. I was astounded, because based on her explanation, Earth is also the cosmos, as is our house. Then I asked the teacher, but he stated that I was still young and wouldn’t comprehend. Now I can elucidate what the cosmos is the cosmos.

The concept of the universe

The term “universe” is an extremely abstract idea. On one level, the universe can be thought of as a metagalaxy, encompassing the vast expanse of space that is continuously expanding.

However, philosophically speaking, the universe is also an all-encompassing entity. It is something that cannot be easily described. It encompasses everything that is material, or more precisely, everything that comprises the material world.

The metagalaxy

Essentially, the metagalaxy is a vast expanse of nothingness. It also consists of clusters comprising cosmic gas, primarily hydrogen and helium, as well as metals in the form of comets. Additionally, it is populated by numerous galaxies. The metagalaxy is in a state of perpetual expansion, as described by Hubble’s law (V=H*D), where all objects are moving away from each other at a rate equal to the product of the Hubble constant and the distance between them. This expansion will continue indefinitely until the average density of matter within the metagalaxy approaches zero. Alternatively, it may undergo a dramatic contraction, returning to its original singularity state, or it may continue expanding and eventually contract. These possibilities are mere hypotheses put forth by scientists.

The philosophical understanding of the universe

The philosophical understanding of the universe encompasses all forms of matter. Anything that exists is considered to be a constituent part of the universe. This broad concept includes various objects, such as:

1. Living organisms, specifically, organic matter.
2. Biogenic matter (matter formed by living organisms).
3. Inorganic matter (matter formed by non-living nature, such as rocks, minerals, etc.).
4. Atoms and molecules (the building blocks of all matter).
5. Subatomic particles (the constituent parts of atoms).
6. Antimatter (Similar to matter, but composed of antiparticles).
7. Energy (a measure of the transformation of matter from one form to another).

Delving deep into the origins of the universe, I sought to uncover the elusive answer to this thought-provoking query. It continues to captivate the minds of individuals to this day, or at least those who ponder such matters. In the past, the term “Universe” encompassed everything known to humanity, from the vast expanse of space to the tiniest particles. It constituted the entirety of existence on a global scale, encompassing space, energy, time, celestial bodies, matter, and beyond.

What did the ancient people believe about the universe?

In ancient times, and even in more recent times, people had various beliefs about the nature of the universe. One common belief was that the Earth was flat and was supported by three whales. Above the Earth, there was a celestial dome known as the firmament, which held the stars, moon, and sun. Most civilizations believed that the universe was contained within this firmament, and they believed that it was created and protected by one or more gods.

Evolution of Theories on the Structure of the Universe

The concept of the universe has been present in ancient civilizations such as Egypt and Mesopotamia, but it underwent significant developments during the ancient period. During this time, the prevailing belief was that the universe was a timeless structure with the Earth positioned at its center, around which all other celestial bodies orbited:

These understandings persisted until the Middle Ages.

Evolution of Thought from the Middle Ages to the Present

A number of scientists proposed the concept that the Earth revolves around the Sun, challenging the prevailing belief at the time. They sought to explain natural and cosmic phenomena through scientific means, rather than relying on religious explanations. Many natural phenomena remained unexplained, leading scientists to make rigorous efforts to provide explanations, often creating justifications that were later difficult to refute.

Scientists have debated that the Sun is merely one of numerous stars in the immense Universe, and they all emit light due to the occurrence of the Big Bang 14 billion years ago, which infused everything with infinite energy, causing it to continue shining, glowing, and moving. Over time, knowledge has led to the revelation of numerous galaxies. Hydrogen, which constitutes 88% of the universe, serves as its fundamental component. Furthermore, it serves as the foundation for all forms of life.

As a child, I had a peculiar inclination towards pondering the mysteries of the universe. Unlike most kids, when I was reprimanded and confined to a corner, I didn’t wallow in self-pity and shed tears. Instead, I would occupy my mind with perplexing questions like why water always flows downwards and the origins of our planet Earth. However, one day, I found myself utterly stumped when I contemplated the boundaries of the stars. It was an overwhelming thought that left me utterly “frozen” with disbelief. I couldn’t fathom the concept of an end to the visible and tangible world, prompting me to break free from my corner confinement and pester everyone around me with my endless inquiries. Unsurprisingly, my incessant curiosity led to a change in disciplinary tactics, as I was no longer subjected to the corner as a means of avoidance.

The Universe – What is it?

If you refer to dictionaries, you will find two distinct interpretations of this term. One defines it as a physical concept, while the other portrays it as a philosophical concept. However, there is not much disparity between the two. Both interpretations describe the world that surrounds us. In the former case, it encompasses stars, galaxies, quasars, and black holes, while in the latter case, it represents contemplations on the nature of all things and their significance.

Unbelievable and unfathomable

However, it’s not necessary to delve too deeply into philosophy, as everyone has their own perspectives, not to mention the countless acknowledged and lesser-known schools of thought. What’s even more captivating is the tangible, living world that surrounds us. Especially when there are so many enigmas within it. For instance, the search for dark matter remains ongoing. Additionally, there’s the astonishing cluster of stellar mist that annihilates entire galaxies (which was discovered a few years ago by NASA telescopes). And let’s not forget about the countless stars whose light we see in the night sky – how many of them have yet to fade away?

Here are some additional fascinating details about the cosmos:

• If the Big Bang is the origin of the Universe, then it will eventually experience a cold death, specifically the complete loss of all energy;
• there are indeed shooting stars, they somehow deviate from their orbits and zoom through galaxies at incredible speeds;
• experts approximate the age of our universe to be nearly 14 billion years old.

Incidentally, Venus, the celestial body, orbits the Sun in a counterclockwise direction. This could potentially suggest that it is not indigenous to our solar system, but rather, it was ensnared by the gravitational pull of a passing star.

Throughout my formative years and into the present, I possess a deep affinity for embarking on camping excursions alongside my companions. Frequently, we venture into the depths of the forest, seeking out an open clearing to establish our campsite. The allure of the nocturnal hours is particularly enchanting, as the panoramic vista unfolds before our eyes and the stars radiate with unparalleled brilliance, akin to scenes from cinematic masterpieces. As we recline under the starry expanse, engrossed in contemplation, one cannot help but ponder what lies beyond these vast reaches and what secrets the universe holds. Today, I aim to delve into the topic and illuminate its essence. If you share a similar intrigue, then let us embark on this cosmic journey together.

The Cosmos

Theories explaining the origin of the universe

Throughout history, humans have been curious about the beginnings of the universe. Over the centuries, numerous scientific minds have proposed various theories to explain the origin of our world. Below, I will highlight the most popular ones and provide a brief explanation for each.

1. The Creator theory. This theory is attributed to those who believe that the universe was created by a divine being, often referred to as God, who is responsible for all living things. Many religious individuals have embraced this theory, and it continues to have followers today.
2. The Big Bang Theory suggests that the universe may have originated from a single tiny particle. According to this hypothesis, all the galaxies and stars that make up our galactic system were once contained within this minuscule particle. Then, through a powerful explosion, the scattered elements became the building blocks of our vast universe.
3. The String Theory challenges the traditional notion that the universe is composed of tangible particles. Instead, it proposes that these so-called particles are not actually physical objects that can be touched. To illustrate this idea, think of a flame. It appears solid and touchable, but in reality, it is intangible. Similarly, the constituents of the universe, according to the String Theory, are not truly particles in the conventional sense.

It’s time to wrap up. Today you’ve acquired knowledge about the concept of the universe. You’ve explored various theories and gained insights into the vastness of the universe. I trust that you’ve gained fresh and fascinating insights. Thank you for your engagement.

Cosmology is the field of study that focuses on understanding the composition and evolution of the universe as a whole.

The universe is a complex concept that lacks a precise definition. In the realm of cosmology, which investigates the progression of events following the Big Bang, the universe refers to the portion of the cosmos that can be observed by researchers on Earth.

The large-scale structure of the universe refers to the arrangement of matter throughout the observable cosmos, and is a key concept in cosmology.

An illustration of the most basic arrangement in the cosmos is the planetary-satellite configuration. With the exception of the two planets nearest to the Sun (Mercury and Venus), all other planets possess a partner, and often multiple ones. Despite Earth having just one companion in the form of the Moon, Jupiter boasts an impressive total of 67 satellites in orbit, even if some are relatively diminutive. Nevertheless, the planets of the solar system, alongside their respective satellites, orbit the Sun as a collective, creating what is commonly referred to as the planetary system.

Based on observations, astronomers have discovered that the majority of other stars are also part of planetary systems. Additionally, these stars often form systems and clusters known as stellar formations. According to available data, the majority of stars are believed to exist in paired systems or systems with multiple stars. Our Sun, however, is considered unique as it does not have a companion.

If we zoom out and consider the near-solar space on a larger scale, it becomes evident that all star clusters, along with their planetary systems, create a celestial entity known as the Milky Way galaxy.

Scientists propose that the sequence of events in the evolution of the universe, assuming the validity of the Big Bang Theory, unfolded as follows:

The Dawn of Singularity

At the beginning of the universe’s existence, there exists a minuscule point containing protons and neutrons, which undergoes a colossal explosion. This explosive event occurs within a mere 0.0001 seconds. Subsequently, particles begin to combine, resulting in the formation of hydrogen and helium. The incredibly high temperatures, reaching billions of degrees, facilitate a swift synthesis process, causing the expansion of the cosmos.

The Era of Inflation

At that time, the immense expanse of the cosmos was brimming with energy of remarkably dense nature, extraordinarily high temperature, and intense pressure. As a result, there was a swift expansion and gradual decrease in temperature. This period holds great importance due to the collision and annihilation of particles and antiparticles, which consequently led to the prevalence of matter over antimatter.

The evolution of our understanding of the cosmos

Various galaxies found during the SINGS project.

The concept of the Universe’s grand structure was initially contemplated by the renowned astronomer William Herschel. He is credited with several significant discoveries, including the identification of Uranus and its two moons, two moons of Saturn, the revelation of infrared radiation, and the proposition of the solar system’s movement through space. Through independent construction of a telescope and subsequent observations, Herschel conducted volumetric calculations of luminous celestial bodies in specific regions of the sky, leading him to deduce the existence of numerous stellar clusters in the cosmos.

In the early 20th century, American cosmologist Edwin Hubble provided evidence that certain nebulae were not part of the Milky Way, indicating that there were other star clusters located outside of our galaxy. This discovery greatly expanded our knowledge of the Universe. It revealed that there are tens of thousands of other galaxies in addition to the Milky Way in outer space. As scientists attempted to create a simplified map of the visible Universe, they made a remarkable observation – galaxies are distributed unevenly and form unimaginably large structures.

The Hydra constellation is home to a group of galaxies.

Having extensively studied galaxies, they have been classified into various types and categories. Additionally, scientists have discovered that these cosmic formations can interact with one another, potentially affecting each other’s properties. However, this interaction is primarily observed when galaxies are in close proximity to each other and depends on their respective masses and sizes. It is through these intergalactic relationships that galaxies can merge together.

The joining together of two galaxies

The vast structure of the cosmos

Throughout the course of time, scientists have made the remarkable discovery that individual galaxies are exceptionally uncommon in the boundless expanse of the Universe. Instead, the overwhelming majority of galaxies assemble into immense clusters, which exhibit a wide array of shapes and comprise of two galaxies or even multiple pairs of galaxies, extending to several thousand. Within these colossal celestial formations, one can find not only vast assemblages of stars, but also clusters of gas that have been heated to extraordinary temperatures. Despite having an incredibly low density (thousands of times less than that of the solar atmosphere), the mass of this gaseous matter can greatly surpass the combined mass of all the stars within certain galaxy clusters.

The findings from the observations and calculations have led scientists to posit the possibility of galaxy clusters giving rise to additional, larger formations. This, in turn, has given rise to two fascinating inquiries: if a galaxy, already a complex entity, is a constituent of a larger structure, could that structure itself be a constituent of an even grander assemblage? And, ultimately, is there an upper boundary to this hierarchical organization, wherein each system is but a segment of another?

Galactic walls bear resemblance to the interconnections of neurons in the human cerebral cortex

The affirmative response to the initial inquiry is validated by the existence of supercollisions between galaxies, which subsequently evolve into galactic filaments, also known as “walls”. These walls have an average thickness of approximately 10 million light years and a length ranging from 160 to 260 million light years. However, in addressing the second query, it is important to acknowledge that super clusters of galaxies do not constitute isolated structures, but rather denser segments of galactic walls. Therefore, contemporary scientists are confident that it is the galactic filaments (walls), the largest cosmic structures, interspersed with voids (areas devoid of star clusters), that compose the fibrous or cellular framework of the Universe.

Deviating slightly from the subject, let’s indicate the position of our planet in this intricate structure:

1. Planetary System: Solar
2. Local interstellar cloud.
3. Orion Galactic arm
4. Galaxy: Milky Way
5. Galaxy cluster: Local group
6. Galaxy Supergroup: Local Supergroup (Virgo)
7. Galaxy Supergroup: Laniakea
8. Wall: The Pisces-Keith superscale complex.

According to current research findings, the Universe is composed of a minimum of 200 billion galaxies. The galactic walls have a relatively flat nature and make up the “cells” of the Universe, with the intersections forming superclusters of galaxies. Void regions exist at the center of these cells.

Edwin Hubble’s research provided us with accurate information regarding the various types and boundaries of galaxies. The astrophysicist proposed a classification system which includes the following:

1. Spiral galaxies: These are the most prevalent “star homes” in the universe. They take on the form of distinct spirals that either revolve around a central nucleus or radiate from a galactic “hub”. Our very own Milky Way belongs to this category. Another well-known representative of spiral galaxies is our neighboring galaxy – Andromeda. It is hurtling towards us at a rapid pace, increasing the possibility of a collision between these two stellar abodes.
2. Elliptical galaxies: These galaxies possess an unconventional shape. They are abundant throughout the cosmos, but their appearance is not as striking due to the absence of cosmic dust and stellar gas. The elliptical galaxies consist solely of star clusters.

Resources about the subject

According to the analysis conducted by scientists, the three-dimensional model of galaxy distribution reveals the presence of a cellular structure in every direction at a distance exceeding one billion light years. This finding implies that at a scale of a few hundred million light years, any section of the Universe will contain a comparable amount of matter. Thus, it can be concluded that the Universe exhibits homogeneity on these scales.

The Ancient Origins of Cosmology

Since ancient times, humans have pondered the nature of the world around them. Tales and folklore from various cultures offer glimpses into the earliest ideas about the structure and laws of the Universe.

Regular astronomical observations are thought to have originated in Mesopotamia, which was home to several advanced civilizations including the Sumerians, Assyrians, and Persians. The universe as envisioned by these civilizations can be studied through the many cuneiform tablets discovered at ancient city sites. The oldest records of celestial body movement can be traced back to the 6th millennium BC.

Also read: Tunguska meteorite – its time and location of impact, consequences, and other fascinating facts.

The Nebra Celestial Disk is an ancient artifact dating back to the 17th century B.C. It is believed to have been used for observing astronomical phenomena.

Among the various astronomical phenomena, the Sumerians had a particular interest in cycles, such as the changing of seasons and the phases of the moon. These cycles were crucial for predicting future harvests, ensuring the health of domestic animals, and ultimately the survival of the human population. This led to the realization that celestial bodies have an influence on the processes occurring on Earth. It was through the study of the Universe that astrology was born, enabling people to predict their own future.

The Sumerians also made significant contributions to the field of astronomy. They invented a pole to measure the height of the Sun, developed solar and lunar calendars, identified and described the major constellations, and discovered certain laws of celestial mechanics.

A great deal of attention was given to the study of celestial bodies in the religious rituals of ancient Egypt. The people of the Nile Valley followed the geocentric model of the Universe, believing that the Sun orbited around the Earth. Numerous ancient Egyptian texts containing astronomical knowledge have been preserved.

The field of astronomy reached impressive heights in ancient China. As early as the 3rd millennium BC, the position of court astronomer was established, and in the 12th century BC, the first observatories were built. Our understanding of solar eclipses, comets, meteor showers, and other fascinating celestial events from antiquity mainly comes from Chinese chronicles and records, which were meticulously maintained for centuries.

The Hellenes held astronomy in high esteem, with numerous philosophical schools dedicated to studying the Universe. Each school had its own unique system of understanding the cosmos. The Greeks were the first to propose that the Earth was a sphere and that it rotated on its own axis. Hipparchus, an astronomer, introduced the concepts of apogee and perigee, as well as the eccentricity of orbits. He developed models to explain the motion of the Sun and Moon and calculated the periods of planetary rotation. Ptolemy, another influential figure, made a significant contribution to the field of astronomy by creating the geocentric model of the solar system.

The geocentric model proposed by Ptolemy was widely accepted for many centuries, suggesting that the Earth was the central point of the universe.

Archaeological excavations have provided evidence of the impressive advancements made by the Mayan civilization in understanding the laws of the universe. The Mayan priests possessed the ability to predict solar eclipses, developed a highly accurate calendar system, and constructed numerous observatories. Additionally, Mayan astronomers closely observed the planets in our solar system and accurately determined their orbital periods.

Despite the existence of massive structures like galactic walls and filaments, clusters of galaxies are still considered the largest stable structures. The reason for this is that the expansion of the Universe stretches the structure of all objects over time, and only gravity can counteract this force. Observations of clusters and superclusters have led to the discovery of a fascinating phenomenon known as “gravitational lensing”. This occurs when light rays passing through interstellar space are bent, indicating the presence of a vast, invisible mass. This mass could potentially be associated with various undetectable cosmic bodies, but at this scale, it is most likely attributed to dark matter.

Einstein’s Cross is a quasar that has been gravitationally lensed.

Scientists are confident that the matter in the Universe is distributed evenly, thanks to the almost uniform relic radiation. However, gravity has a unique property of pulling physical particles together, creating dense structures that disrupt this homogeneity. As a result, after the Big Bang, small irregularities in the distribution of matter in space started to condense into specific structures. The increasing gravity, caused by the growing mass per unit volume, gradually slowed down the expansion until it eventually came to a halt. In certain regions, the expansion even turned into compression, leading to the formation of galaxies and galaxy clusters.

A computer simulation confirmed the validity of this model. By considering tiny variations in the uniformity of the cosmic microwave background, the computer determined that similar small fluctuations in the matter distribution following the Big Bang could have feasibly led to the formation of galaxy clusters and the intricate large-scale structure of the Universe.
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Where was the universe’s birthplace?

It may be difficult to fathom in the present day, but the immense expanse of the universe, spanning 14 billion years, was once condensed into a minuscule dot. This dot consisted of dense and intensely hot protomatter. Eventually, this dot underwent a cataclysmic explosion, causing its constituent elements to scatter. This scientific proposition, known as the Big Bang Theory, stands as the most rational explanation and thus serves as the prevailing hypothesis regarding the origin of the universe.

All the particles that resulted from the explosion dispersed from the epicenter of the event and eventually started to interact with one another. Clumps were formed from the scattered matter, which later evolved into stars. Galaxies were formed due to the effects of centrifugal and gravitational forces.

The expansion of the Universe and the creation of new “seals” is an ongoing process. As a result, scientists find it challenging to determine the limits of the universe.

What methods can we use to measure the sizes of objects in the solar system?

Before attempting to visualize the vastness of the universe, it is important to first grasp the scale of the Sun and the planets. Comparing them to each other can also be a challenge. Often, the Sun is represented by a billiard ball, which has a diameter of 7 cm. However, in reality, the Sun’s diameter is approximately 1.4 million kilometers. In this “toy” representation, the first planet from the Sun, Mercury, would be located 2 meters and 80 centimeters away. The Earth ball, with a diameter of only half a millimeter, would be positioned 7.6 meters from the star. In this scale model, Jupiter would be 40 meters away, and Pluto would be 300 meters away.

What are the units used to measure distances in outer space?

Within the solar system, centimeters, meters, and even kilometers are all insignificant. But what about the vast expanse of the Universe? To quantify distances within our own Galaxy, we use a unit called a light-year. This represents the amount of time it would take for light to travel in one year. Remember, one light-second is roughly equal to 300,000 kilometers. So when converted to more familiar units like kilometers, a light-year is approximately equal to 10 trillion. It’s a mind-boggling scale that is beyond human comprehension. However, when it comes to measuring distances between neighboring galaxies, even a light-year is insufficient. We need an even larger unit of measurement, which is the parsec. A parsec is equivalent to 3.26 light-years.

The Middle Ages and the Present

Following the fall of the Roman Empire and the rise of Christianity, Europe entered a period known as the Dark Ages, lasting for nearly a thousand years. During this time, the advancement of natural sciences, including astronomy, came to a halt. Europeans relied on biblical texts for information about the structure and laws of the universe, with only a few astronomers adhering to Ptolemy’s geocentric system. Astrology gained unprecedented popularity. It wasn’t until the Renaissance that scientists truly began to study the universe.

In the late 15th century, Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa introduced an audacious concept regarding the all-encompassing nature of the universe and the boundless depths it holds. By the 16th century, it became evident that Ptolemy’s perspectives were erroneous, and the advancement of science would be inconceivable without embracing a new paradigm. Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish mathematician and astronomer, took it upon himself to dismantle the antiquated model by proposing the heliocentric model of the solar system.

The heliocentric theory, proposed by the Polish priest and astronomer Copernicus,

From a contemporary perspective, Copernicus’ idea had its flaws. According to Copernicus, the planets moved due to the rotation of the celestial spheres they were attached to. The orbits themselves were circular in shape, and there was a sphere with fixed stars at the edge of the world. However, by placing the Sun at the center of the system, the Polish scientist undoubtedly brought about a true revolution. The history of astronomy can be divided into two major periods: the ancient period and the study of the universe from Copernicus to the present day.

In the midst of the 16th century, Tycho Brahe, a Danish scientist, became the pioneer of regular astronomical observations. He successfully validated the extraterrestrial origin of comets, thereby refuting Copernicus’ concept of celestial spheres. In the early 17th century, Johannes Kepler unraveled the enigmas surrounding planetary motion through the formulation of his renowned laws. Simultaneously, significant discoveries were made, including the identification of the Andromeda and Orion nebulae, the observation of Saturn’s rings, and the creation of the initial map of the lunar surface.

By the year 1687, Isaac Newton had established the law of universal gravitation, providing an explanation for the interactions between all components of the universe. This breakthrough enabled a deeper understanding of Kepler’s laws, which were originally derived from empirical evidence. Newton’s principles paved the way for scientists to gain fresh insights into the vast expanse of the universe.

The 18th century was a period of significant advancements in astronomy, which greatly expanded our understanding of the vastness of the Universe. In 1785, Immanuel Kant proposed a groundbreaking idea that the Milky Way is a massive star cluster held together by the force of gravity.

During this era, new celestial objects were discovered and telescopes underwent major improvements.

In 1785, the English astronomer Herschel attempted to develop a model of the universe and ascertain its shape based on the principles of electromagnetism and Newtonian mechanics. However, his efforts were unsuccessful.

During the 19th century, scientists’ instruments became more precise, leading to the emergence of photographic astronomy. The introduction of spectral analysis in the mid-century sparked a revolution in observational astronomy, as researchers could now focus on studying the chemical composition of celestial objects. This period also saw the discovery of the asteroid belt and the measurement of the speed of light.

It’s likely that you have a subject called Astronomy in school, where you learn about stars, constellations, and even attempt to unravel the mysteries of black holes. However, the universe holds so many enigmas that a textbook simply cannot encompass them all. You might be intrigued to delve a little deeper into the cosmos.

What is the extent of the universe?

Scientists provide only an approximate response to this inquiry since it is unfeasible to scrutinize the entirety of the expanse. Only 1-4% of the celestial space has been explored, even with such advanced technology! This represents the observable magnitude of the Universe, which is 14.6 gigaparsecs or 45.7 billion light years. But how can we grasp this measurement?

Imagine the Earth as a grain of buckwheat, and let the Sun be a sphere the size of half a soccer field. If we consider this nucleus as 1 parsec, representing our solar system, then the Milky Way in relation to it would span the length of two soccer fields. Now, if we shrink it to a centimeter, the Universe in proportion would be 9.2 km.

To have a clearer picture, it should be noted that a recent discovery has been made by scientists regarding a newly found supergiant star called “UY Scuti”. This star is so massive that its size is equivalent to that of 5 billion suns! Just think about how minuscule our existence is when considering that the radius of the Earth is a mere 109 times smaller than that of the Sun.

What Makes Up the Universe

From our lessons in physics, we understand that everything in the world, whether living or non-living, is composed of molecules, which are made up of atoms consisting of neutrons, protons, and electrons. However, the composition of the cosmos is far more complex. Scientists theorize that dark matter and dark energy make up a significant portion of the universe, accounting for approximately 96% overall. Dark matter constitutes around 23% of the universe, while dark energy makes up the remaining 72%.

These two enigmatic components, often referred to as the “dark horses” of the universe, continue to puzzle scientists. Dark matter does not interact with or reflect light, but instead exerts a gravitational force on celestial bodies, similar to a magnet attracting and holding paper clips. It is the driving force behind gravity in the universe. In contrast, dark energy acts as a counterforce, causing the expansion of the universe by exerting an antigravitational effect.

Are there Limits and Form to the Universe?

There is a prevailing belief that the Universe possesses boundaries, which lie beyond them in a state of absolute emptiness due to its expansion. However, scientists propose a multitude of hypotheses and theories without concrete evidence.

Scientists are engaged in efforts to determine the boundaries of the universe through the study of space waves. If the Universe is infinite, it should encompass a wide range of wavelengths. However, the WMAP instrument, launched by NASA many years ago, revealed that the Universe possesses a relatively narrow spectrum of waves, indicating the presence of boundaries. Yet, the exact location of these boundaries remains unknown. Currently, the cosmological horizon is considered to be the boundary, wherein objects experience infinite redshift.

Disagreement also exists regarding the shape of the Universe. Some argue it resembles a bagel, while others contend it is more akin to a sphere.

The Universe: A Vacuum

It is commonly believed that the cosmic environment is the closest approximation to a complete vacuum. It consists of hydrogen molecules or interstellar matter, oxygen molecules, electromagnetic radiation, and cosmic rays.

For a long time, it was believed that the Universe was completely silent, but this is not entirely true. Although no one would be able to hear it, black holes actually produce sound waves at ultra-low frequencies, a discovery made in 2003.

Interestingly, scientists also speculate about the existence of “White Holes,” although this is still just a theory.

Brief facts and myths

Our stellar location

In the vast expanse of the universe, there exist approximately 500 billion galaxies. So, in case you embark on an interstellar journey, it is imperative to acquaint yourself with our celestial whereabouts to ensure a safe return home. Never forget: the Perseus-Pegasus Galactic Filament, the Pisces-Keith supercluster, Laniakea, the Virgo supercluster, the Local Group of galaxies, the Milky Way galaxy, the Orion arm, the Solar System, planet Earth.

The absence of the Moon would lead to the extinction of marine life

The Moon plays a crucial role in regulating the tides, which provide vital habitats for countless marine species. Without the Moon, there would be no eclipses, resulting in significant shifts in tectonic plates, leading to widespread volcanic eruptions and devastating tsunamis. Furthermore, the absence of the Moon would cause a dramatic and irreversible change in the climate.

What contributes to the mass of the universe

Every year, our Galaxy alone witnesses the formation of up to 40 new stars. However, these stars and planets only account for 5% of the total mass of the universe. The origin of the remaining 95% still remains a mystery.

Inaccuracies in movies regarding space debris

Many movies depict scenarios where spaceships collide with space debris and sustain damage. In reality, this is highly unlikely to happen, despite the existence of over 8,000 objects in orbit around Earth. Modern spacecraft are equipped with advanced sensors, instruments, and devices that enable them to detect approaching objects and adjust their trajectory accordingly.