- The stratosphere, derived from the Latin word “stratum” which means planking or layer, is a specific layer of the atmosphere that exists at an altitude ranging from 11 to 50 kilometers. It is characterized by a minimal change in temperature within the range of 11-25 kilometers (known as the lower stratosphere layer), and a gradual increase in temperature within the range of 25-40 kilometers, varying from -56.5 °C to +0.8 °C (referred to as the upper stratosphere layer or inversion area). Upon reaching approximately 0 °C at an altitude of around 40 kilometers, the temperature remains constant until reaching an altitude of about 55 kilometers. This region of consistent temperature is known as the stratopause, which serves as the boundary separating the stratosphere and the mesosphere. The air density in the stratosphere is significantly lower, tens and hundreds of times less, compared to sea level.
The ozonosphere, also known as the “ozone layer,” is located in the stratosphere at an altitude of 15-20 to 55-60 km. It serves as the upper limit for life in the biosphere. Ozone (O3) is primarily formed through photochemical reactions, with the most intense formation occurring at approximately 30 km above the Earth’s surface. If all the ozone were concentrated into a single layer, it would only be 1.7-4.0 mm thick under normal pressure.
Within the stratosphere, the majority of short-wave ultraviolet radiation (180-200 nm) is absorbed and transformed into energy. This radiation influences magnetic fields, causes molecular decay, leads to ionization, and facilitates the creation of new gases and chemical compounds. These processes can be observed as phenomena such as the Northern Lights, zarnitsa, and other luminous glows.
Related terms
The atmosphere of the Earth (derived from the Greek ἀτμός – meaning vapor, and σφαῖρα – meaning ball) is a gaseous envelop surrounding our planet. It is one of the Earth’s geospheres, with its inner surface covering the hydrosphere and partially the Earth’s crust. The outer surface of the atmosphere gradually blends into the near-Earth region of outer space.
The mesosphere (from the Greek words μεσο- meaning middle and σφαῖρα meaning ball or sphere) refers to a specific layer within the Earth’s atmosphere, located at altitudes ranging from 40-50 to 80-90 km. This layer exhibits a decrease in temperature as altitude increases. The lowest boundary of the mesosphere experiences the highest temperature (0°C), followed by a drop in temperature to around -70°C or -80°C near the mesopause, which marks the transition to the thermosphere. The term “mesosphere” was officially adopted by the Geographical and Geophysical Union in 1951.
The thermosphere, derived from the Greek words “warm” and “ball” or “sphere,” is the atmospheric layer that comes after the mesosphere. It starts at an altitude of 80-90 km and goes up to 800 km.
The troposphere, which comes from the Greek words “turn, change” and “ball,” is the lower and most extensively studied layer of the atmosphere. It reaches heights of 8-10 km in polar regions, 10-12 km in temperate latitudes, and 16-18 km at the equator.
The atmosphere, derived from the Greek words “vapor” and “sphere,” is a gaseous envelope surrounding a celestial body due to gravitational forces. It is commonly defined as the area surrounding a celestial body where the gaseous medium moves in unison with it. The atmospheres of certain planets, known as gas giants, can have a significant thickness, although there is no distinct boundary between the atmosphere and interplanetary space.
Mentions in literary works
ATMOSPH?RA, the air envelope surrounding planets, is typically the focus of meteorology. On Earth, the atmosphere is composed of a mixture of gases, known as air, along with solid impurities such as dust, water droplets, and ice crystals. While the atmosphere does not have a clearly defined upper boundary, it can be traced to altitudes as high as 800-1000 kilometers within the Earth’s atmosphere. As altitude increases, both atmospheric pressure and density decrease. The distribution of temperature with altitude is complex: it decreases until the upper boundary of the troposphere (8-18 km), then increases until the upper boundary of the stratosphere (50-55 km), reaching temperatures of 50°C, before decreasing again until the upper boundary of the mesosphere (80-85 km). In the thermosphere, the temperature rises until it reaches the boundary with the exosphere, after which it remains constant.
The troposphere is where nearly all weather phenomena occur, and its lower 500-1500 m is known as the atmospheric boundary layer. In this layer, the influence of friction on the Earth’s surface is noticeable, and changes in meteorological elements throughout the day are concentrated, depending on the height of the sun above the horizon. Non-uniform heating in the atmosphere, particularly in the troposphere, leads to significant frictional effects on the Earth’s surface. This, in turn, gives rise to air currents on both a global scale, known as general circulation, and on a local scale, such as breezes and foehn winds. Additionally, air masses are formed and separated by atmospheric fronts, representing the primary horizontal divisions of the atmosphere.
Located 80-90 kilometers above the Earth’s surface, the stratosphere is the layer of the air ocean that lies above the troposphere. This particular layer consists of extremely hot air, with temperatures reaching up to 42 degrees Celsius. Unlike the troposphere, the air in the stratosphere is highly rarefied and contains a different oxygen composition. In this layer, each molecule is made up of three oxygen atoms, forming a unique compound known as ozone. Ozone plays a crucial role in absorbing the sun’s dangerous ultraviolet rays, thus reducing their impact on the troposphere. Due to the high levels of heat trapped from the Sun, the stratosphere is an exceptionally warm part of the Earth’s atmospheric structure. Unlike the troposphere, the stratosphere is devoid of storms, precipitation, and natural light. It is a place of complete stillness and darkness, occasionally visited by high-speed aircraft.
Research on this gas has revealed that when undecomposed Freon enters the stratosphere in significant amounts, it is released into the Earth’s troposphere and breaks down ozone layers due to the impact of intense ultraviolet radiation from outer space. As a result, the use of automotive air conditioner refrigerant has been restricted.
Speaking about the ecological ramifications of human activity transforming the natural environment into their own, these consequences do not manifest in isolation, but rather as a complex. A prime example of this complex of ecological consequences is the identification in 1985 of the phenomenon known as “ozone holes” in the Earth’s stratosphere (the actual depletion of the planet’s ozone layer began approximately 10 years prior). The depletion of the Earth’s ozone shield led to a more intense penetration of harsh ultraviolet radiation from the Sun onto the planet’s surface, resulting in the emergence of new diseases (AIDS was first recorded on the planet in 1980). Furthermore, stratospheric heat began to descend to the Earth’s surface through these “ozone holes” (the “greenhouse effect” was officially acknowledged in 1987).
Continued Related Concepts
The exosphere, derived from the Greek words “exō” meaning “outside” and “sphaîra” meaning “ball” or “sphere”, refers to the outer region of the upper atmosphere found on Earth and other celestial bodies. The exobase, which serves as its lower boundary, is determined by the point where the free path length of atoms equals the height of the homogeneous atmosphere. In the exosphere, particles primarily follow ballistic trajectories, meaning that if they possess sufficient space velocity, there is a considerable chance of them escaping the planet without any collisions. The concentration of neutral atoms within the exosphere is relatively low.
The ozone layer is a part of the stratosphere located at an altitude of 20 to 25 km (25-30 km in tropical latitudes, 20-25 km in temperate latitudes, and 15-20 km in polar latitudes). It contains the highest concentration of ozone, a molecule consisting of three oxygen atoms (O3), which forms as a result of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun interacting with molecular oxygen (O2). This process, known as dissociation, leads to the formation of ozone and the absorption of near-visible ultraviolet radiation.
A meteozonde, also known as a balloon ozone or balloon probe, is an unmanned balloon specifically designed for atmospheric research. It is composed of a rubber or plastic shell filled with hydrogen or helium, and it carries a suspended container of equipment.
The magnetosphere, also known as the magnetic sphere, refers to the space surrounding a celestial body where the behavior of the plasma is influenced by the body’s magnetic field.
A radiosonde is a device used to measure various atmospheric parameters and transmit the data to fixed receivers. Radiosondes operate on specific radio frequencies such as 403 MHz (±3 MHz), 1680 MHz (±10 MHz), and 1782 MHz (±8 MHz until 2023).
Cosmic radiation, which includes both electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation, originates from sources beyond Earth. It can be further categorized into primary radiation (galactic and solar) and secondary radiation. In some cases, the terms cosmic radiation and cosmic rays are used interchangeably.
The ionosphere is a layer of the Earth’s atmosphere that is strongly ionized by cosmic rays. It is located in the upper part of the atmosphere, which includes the mesosphere, mesopause, and thermosphere. The ionization is mainly caused by radiation from the Sun.
The tropopause is a transitional layer between the troposphere and the stratosphere. It is characterized by a significant decrease in the vertical temperature gradient. The word “tropopause” comes from the Greek words “τρόπος” meaning “turn” or “change,” and “παῦσις” meaning “stop” or “cessation.”
Venus’s atmosphere is the gas envelope that surrounds the planet. It is primarily composed of carbon dioxide and nitrogen, with trace amounts of other compounds. The atmosphere contains clouds of sulfuric acid, which prevent visible light from reaching the surface. It is only transparent in the radio and microwave bands, as well as parts of the near infrared spectrum. Compared to Earth’s atmosphere, Venus’s atmosphere is much denser and hotter. The average surface temperature is significantly higher.
A radiation belt is a region within a planet’s magnetosphere where high-energy charged particles, such as protons and electrons, become trapped and accumulate.
A shock wave is a boundary that moves through a medium, causing a sudden jump in pressure, density, temperature, and velocity.
A solar flare refers to a sudden and explosive release of various forms of energy, including kinetic, light, and heat, within the Sun’s atmosphere. These flares can occur in different layers of the solar atmosphere, such as the photosphere, chromosphere, and corona. It is important to note that solar flares and coronal mass ejections are distinct and separate phenomena within solar activity. The energy released during a powerful solar flare can reach up to 6×1025 joules, which is approximately one sixth of the Sun’s total energy output per second, equivalent to 160 billion joules.
Atmospheric pressure refers to the force exerted by the atmosphere on all objects within it and on the surface of the Earth. It is measured as the modulus of the force per unit area acting in the atmosphere along a normal vector. In a stationary atmosphere at rest, the pressure can be determined by dividing the weight of the column of air above a given area by the area of its cross-section. Atmospheric pressure is a thermodynamic parameter that characterizes the state of the atmosphere and can vary depending on location and time. It is important to note that pressure is a scalar quantity.
The velocity of sound refers to the pace at which elastic waves propagate through a substance, including both longitudinal (in gases, liquids, or solids) and transverse shear waves (in solids). This rate is determined by the substance’s elasticity and density, typically resulting in a lower speed of sound in gases compared to liquids, and in liquids compared to solids. Additionally, the speed of sound in gases is influenced by temperature, while in single crystals it is affected by the direction of wave propagation. Generally, the speed of sound is independent of the wave’s frequency and amplitude in most cases.
Cosmic rays are particles and atomic nuclei that travel with high energy in outer space.
Interplanetary space is the area of outer space that is bounded by the orbit of the farthest planet from the star.
Earth’s magnetic field, also known as the geomagnetic field, is a magnetic field that is generated by sources within the Earth. It has been present for 4.2 billion years.
Solar radiation refers to the electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation emitted by the Sun. It is important to note that this term is a direct translation from the English term “Solar radiation” and in this context does not refer to everyday radiation or ionizing radiation.
The Parnic effect is the phenomenon of the lower atmosphere of a planet having a higher temperature compared to the planet’s effective temperature, which is the temperature of the planet’s thermal radiation observed from space.
The magnetopause, also known as the magnetopause, refers to the point where the pressure of the magnetic field of a celestial body is equal to the pressure of the plasma surrounding its magnetosphere.
A coronal mass ejection refers to the release of matter from the solar corona. It is challenging to observe coronal mass ejections from the Earth’s surface. The first observation of coronal emissions in the visible wavelength range took place in the early 1970s using the coronagraph on the Seventh Orbiting Solar Observatory. The phenomenon continued to be studied by the SMM station in 1980.
Water vapor is the gaseous form of water. It is colorless, tasteless, and odorless. When water vapor is in thermodynamic equilibrium with the surface of a wet substance, whether in its pure form or as part of a wet gas, it is referred to as equilibrium water vapor.
Supersonic velocity refers to the speed of particles in a substance that exceeds the speed of sound or the propagation of a compression wave (shock wave) within that substance. It can also refer to the velocity of an object moving through a substance at a speed greater than the speed of sound for that medium.
Convection, derived from the Latin word convectiō meaning “transfer,” is a form of heat exchange that involves the transfer of internal energy through jets and streams. Natural convection occurs spontaneously in a substance when it is unevenly heated in a gravitational field. In this type of convection, the lower layers of matter heat up, become lighter, and rise, while the upper layers cool down, become heavier, and sink. This process repeats itself under certain conditions.
Subsonic velocity refers to the speed at which a body, such as a vehicle, moves at a speed lower than the speed at which sound vibrations propagate in a given medium under specific conditions.
The second cosmic velocity, also known as the parabolic velocity or escape velocity, is the minimum velocity required for an object, such as a spacecraft, with a negligible mass compared to that of a celestial body, such as a planet, to overcome the gravitational attraction of the celestial body and exit a closed orbit around it. It is assumed that once the body attains this velocity, it will no longer experience non-gravitational acceleration.
Space weather, a term that gained popularity in the 1990s, encompasses the most crucial aspects of studying the relationship between the sun and the Earth. The field of scientific knowledge known as “Solar-Earth relations” focuses on exploring all possible interactions between helio- and geophysical phenomena. This interdisciplinary science combines solar physics, solar system studies, and geophysics to investigate the effects of solar variability and solar activity in the interplanetary medium.
In space engineering, reentry refers to the stage when a spacecraft enters the Earth’s atmosphere. The vehicle’s outer shell, traveling at high speeds, experiences significant heating due to the aerodynamic drag from the surrounding gas environment. To survive reentry, an object must have thermal protection, typically in the form of ablative materials.
The orbital velocity of an object (typically a planet, natural or artificial satellite, or multiple star) refers to the speed at which it revolves around the barycenter of the system, typically a larger celestial body.
A condensation trail (also known as an inversion trail or jet trail) is a visible trace of water vapor or ice crystals in the air that forms behind moving aircraft under certain atmospheric conditions. This phenomenon is most commonly observed in the upper layers of the troposphere, although it can occur less frequently in the tropopause and stratosphere. In colder temperatures, it may be visible at lower altitudes.
Silver clouds, also referred to as mesospheric clouds or night glowing clouds, are a unique atmospheric occurrence that can be seen during deep twilight. These clouds are incredibly rare and are found in the mesosphere, below the mesopause, at an altitude of 76-85 km above the Earth’s surface. They tend to appear during the summer months at latitudes ranging from 43° to 65° in both the northern and southern hemispheres. Interestingly, scientists have discovered similar phenomena on other celestial bodies, such as Mars.
The dissipation of planetary atmospheres, also known as planetary wind, refers to the process of gases being lost from the atmospheres of planets as they dissipate into outer space. The primary mechanism of atmospheric loss is thermal, which is caused by the thermal motion of molecules. This motion causes gas molecules in the highly rarefied outer layers of the atmosphere to acquire velocities that exceed the critical escape velocity, allowing them to escape beyond the gravitational field of the planet. An atmosphere is considered stable if the average velocity of its molecules does not exceed the critical escape velocity.
Submillimeter astronomy is a branch of observational astronomy that focuses on studying objects in the terahertz radiation wavelength range, also known as the submillimeter wavelength range. This range is situated between the far infrared and microwave ranges, spanning from a few hundred micrometers to a millimeter in wavelength. In submillimeter astronomy, the preferred unit of measurement for wavelengths is often the micron.
Hypersonic speed in aerodynamics refers to velocities that surpass the speed of sound in the atmosphere. These speeds are significantly higher than the speed of sound.
A geomagnetic storm is a disturbance in the Earth’s magnetic field that can last from several hours to a few days.
The jet stream is a narrow corridor of powerful winds in the upper part of the troposphere, which is separated from the tropopause by the top. It is characterized by high speeds, typically exceeding 25 m/s on its axis, as well as significant wind gradients, with vertical gradients exceeding 5 m/s at a height of 1 km and horizontal gradients exceeding 10 m/s at a distance of 100 km. The lower boundary of the jet stream is usually found at an altitude of 5-7 km, although it can occasionally be as low as 2-4 km. In some cases, particularly when there are very large temperature gradients, the jet stream can even be as low as 500-1000 meters.
Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, is a prime candidate for colonization in the outer regions of our solar system. One of the main attractions of colonizing this moon is the abundance of hydrocarbons, which are essential for many of Earth’s technological advancements. Additionally, the possibility of finding liquid organic compounds and even non-oxygenic life on Titan adds to its potential for colonization. NASA’s Outer Planet Flagship program includes plans for exploring Titan, as well as Enceladus.
A radiometer is a device used to measure the energy properties of various types of radiation. It is commonly used in scientific research and industrial applications.
Further mentions in literary works
What would occur if a meteor of tens of kilometers in size crashed into the Earth? Geophysicists have determined the repercussions of such a worldwide catastrophe in the most general scenario. Firstly, a crater with a diameter of hundreds of kilometers and a depth of tens of kilometers would be created. Subsequently, tens of thousands of cubic kilometers of debris would be ejected into the atmosphere, with half of them reaching the upper stratosphere at supersonic speeds. Upon impact with the water surface, the meteor would generate tsunami waves hundreds of meters high, with a reach of thousands of kilometers from the point of impact. The collision would trigger a planetary earthquake measuring 13 on the Richter scale at the epicenter, a million times more powerful than the strongest earthquake ever recorded in the history of the Earth. Lastly, the dust and ash, propelled into the upper atmosphere, would result in the onset of an artificial winter, as the temperature, even at the equator, would remain near zero for approximately one year beneath their impenetrable cover.
Previously, global warming was attributed to increased solar heat as a result of the Earth moving closer to the Sun or changes in solar activity. During these instances, the Sun emits energy that contributes to heating. Initially, the stratosphere warms up, followed by the atmosphere and eventually the Earth’s surface. However, there is now evidence of a decline in stratospheric temperature, hindering the transfer of energy to the Earth’s surface.
It is unclear how much time was required for this repetitive process and why it was necessary in the first place. In my article, I covered the explosion of a waste storage facility, which may have caused significant but localized contamination in the surrounding areas. It is unlikely that the contamination would have reached the upper atmosphere and stratosphere, which have the ability to distribute radioactivity worldwide.
The cataclysm described by Karamzin was most likely caused by an ash cloud, which formed after the eruption of the Huaynaputina volcano in Peru in 1600. This eruption, one of the most devastating in recorded history, resulted in the release of a large amount of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere. The sulfur dioxide was then converted to sulfuric acid, which formed tiny droplets that absorbed solar radiation. As a result, there was a significant and temporary cooling effect, particularly in the summer months, which was especially noticeable in temperate regions. The year 1601 was exceptionally cold, even for the period known as the Little Ice Age. Fortunately, eruptions of this magnitude occur only once or twice a century. In Lord Byron’s poem “Darkness,” the description given by N.M. Karamzin is echoed:
The distribution of atmospheric pollution is not uniform and is influenced by both the location of pollution sources and the characteristics of the atmosphere’s structure. The majority of pollution (90% in the form of gases and 10% as aerosols) is concentrated in the troposphere, which spans from 10 km (above the poles) to 18 km (at the equator). Additionally, some pollution extends into the stratosphere.
Certain synthetic materials, artificial substances, and industrial waste are incompatible with the physical and chemical makeup of living organisms and can be toxic. These substances spread and infiltrate the stratosphere and ocean depths through the movement of water and air, resulting in industrial pollution of water, air, and soil.
2) The stratosphere, which is separated from the troposphere by the tropopause, contains approximately 20% of the Earth’s atmosphere mass and is situated between 8-18 km and 55 km above the Earth’s surface;
The descent and ascent lasted just over fifteen minutes (the initial test dive with humans was planned to a depth of only 25 meters), while the search for the vessel and the rescue of its crew from the steel sphere took five hours. Photographers and filmmakers, who had come from various countries to capture Professor Picard’s dive into the depths of the ocean, were filled with anticipation. Less than two decades ago, the entire world watched in anticipation as he ascended into the stratosphere.
The boundaries of the biosphere are not well defined. Organisms that are alive are spread out throughout the hydrosphere, and they can even go as deep as 3-4 km into the lithosphere. They also live in the troposphere and can be found in the stratosphere as well.
- The troposphere, which derives its name from the Greek words “turn” and “ball,” is the lowermost and most extensively studied layer of the atmosphere. It reaches a height of 8-10 km in polar regions, 10-12 km in temperate latitudes, and 16-18 km at the equator.
As one ascends through the troposphere, the temperature decreases by approximately 0.65 degrees per 100 meters. The uppermost part of the troposphere, where the temperature stops decreasing with altitude, is known as the tropopause.
Above the troposphere lies the next layer of the atmosphere, known as the stratosphere.
More than 80% of the atmospheric air mass is concentrated in the troposphere, where turbulence and convection are highly developed. This layer is also where the majority of water vapor is concentrated, leading to the formation of clouds and the development of atmospheric fronts, cyclones, and anticyclones. These processes play a crucial role in determining weather patterns and climate.
The primary driver of the processes occurring in the troposphere is convection.
Similar terms
Mesosphere (derived from the Greek words μεσο- meaning “middle” and σφαῖρα meaning “ball” or “sphere”) refers to a specific layer of the Earth’s atmosphere located between 40-50 to 80-90 km in altitude. This layer is characterized by a gradual decrease in temperature as altitude increases. The highest temperature (0°C) within the mesosphere is found at its lower boundary, but temperatures rapidly drop to around -70° or -80°C near the mesopause, which acts as a transitional layer to the thermosphere. The term “mesosphere” was officially adopted by the Geographical and Geophysical Union in 1951.
Tropopause (derived from the Greek words τρόπος meaning “turn” or “change” and παῦσις meaning “stop” or “cessation”) is another layer of the Earth’s atmosphere. It is characterized by a steep decrease in the vertical temperature gradient, serving as a transitional layer between the troposphere (the lowest layer of the atmosphere) and the stratosphere (the layer above the troposphere).
The thermosphere, which derives its name from the Greek words “θερμός” meaning “warm” and “σφαῖρα” meaning “ball” or “sphere,” is a layer of the Earth’s atmosphere that comes after the mesosphere. It starts at an altitude of 80-90 km and extends up to 800 km.
The exosphere, on the other hand, gets its name from the Greek words “ἐξω” meaning “outside” and “σφαῖρα” meaning “ball” or “sphere.” It is the outermost part of the upper atmosphere of the Earth and other planets. The lower boundary of the exosphere, known as the exobase, is determined by the point where the free path length of atoms equals the height of a uniform atmosphere. Particles in the exosphere primarily move along ballistic trajectories, and if they have enough velocity, they have a high probability of escaping the planet without colliding with anything. The concentration of neutral atoms in the exosphere is relatively low.
Atmosphere (derived from the Greek word ἀτμός meaning “vapor” and σφαῖρα meaning “sphere”) is the gaseous layer surrounding a celestial object that is held in place by gravity. Due to the lack of a distinct boundary between the atmosphere and interplanetary space, the atmosphere is typically defined as the region surrounding a celestial body where the gaseous medium rotates along with it as a unified entity. The extent of the atmospheres of certain planets, known as gas giants, can be remarkably vast.
Consequently, the equatorial region experiences low pressure due to the substantial heating of the Earth’s surface, resulting in the upward movement of heated air. Conversely, in the polar zones, the air cools within the troposphere causing it to become denser and descend (resulting in downward movement of air), thereby giving rise to low pressure in these latitudes.
Located above the troposphere, approximately 80-90 kilometers above the surface of the Earth, lies the following layer of the atmospheric realm – known as the stratosphere. This particular stratum of air is incredibly warm, with temperatures soaring up to 42 degrees Celsius. Unlike the troposphere, the air within the stratosphere is significantly less dense, and the molecular composition of oxygen differs as well. In the stratosphere, each individual molecule consists of three oxygen atoms, in contrast to the two atoms found near the Earth’s surface. This unique arrangement is referred to as ozone. Ozone plays a crucial role in the stratosphere by absorbing the most hazardous ultraviolet rays emitted by the Sun and diminishing their impact within the troposphere. Due to the stratosphere’s ability to capture substantial amounts of heat from the Sun, this layer of the atmospheric envelope is exceptionally hot. Storms, rain, and snow are absent, leaving only a state of complete stillness and darkness. Occasionally, high-speed jets traverse through this region.
The distribution of atmospheric pollution is not uniform and is influenced by both the location of pollution sources and the characteristics of the atmosphere. The majority of pollution, about 90% in the form of gases and 10% in aerosol form, is concentrated in the troposphere, which extends from around 10 km above the poles to 18 km at the equator. Some pollution also reaches the stratosphere.
Research on this matter has revealed that when undecomposed Freon reaches the stratosphere in large quantities, it is released back into the troposphere and causes damage to the ozone layer. This occurs as the Freon decomposes under the intense ultraviolet radiation from space. As a result, the use of automobile air conditioner refrigerants containing Freon has been restricted.
The biosphere is not clearly defined in terms of boundaries. Organisms can be found throughout the hydrosphere, and they can even penetrate the lithosphere to depths of 3-4 km. They also inhabit the troposphere and can be found in the stratosphere.
Understanding the importance of the key components of forest and urban ecosystems – including flora and fauna, soils, surface and underground water, and tropospheric air masses – is crucial for the development of sustainable and highly productive forests (PC-5).
Solar radiation is the electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation emitted by the Sun. It is important to note that this term is a variation of the English phrase “Solar radiation” and in this context does not refer to radiation in the traditional sense of the word (ionizing radiation).
The planetary boundary layer, also known as the atmospheric boundary layer or friction layer, refers to the lower layer of a planet’s gas envelope. The properties and dynamics of this layer are greatly influenced by its interaction with the solid (or liquid) surface of the planet, known as the “underlying surface”.
The atmosphere of the Earth (derived from the Greek words ἀτμός – vapor and σφαῖρα – ball) is a gaseous layer that surrounds the planet Earth, which is one of the geospheres. Its inner surface covers the hydrosphere and partially the Earth’s crust, while its outer surface blends into the near-Earth region of outer space.
The stratosphere (from the Latin word stratum – planking, layer) refers to a specific layer within the atmosphere that exists at an altitude ranging from 11 to 50 km. This layer is characterized by a minimal change in temperature within the range of 11-25 km (known as the lower stratosphere layer), followed by an increase in temperature from -56.5 °C to +0.8 °C within the layer of 25-40 km (referred to as the upper stratosphere layer or inversion area). Upon reaching a temperature of approximately 0 °C at an altitude of around 40 km, the temperature remains constant until reaching an altitude of approximately 55 km. This region of unchanging temperature is termed the stratopause and serves as the boundary between the stratosphere and other atmospheric layers.
Convection (derived from the Latin word convectiō, meaning “transfer”) refers to a heat exchange mechanism where internal energy is transferred through the movement of jets and streams. Natural convection, which occurs spontaneously within a substance when it experiences uneven heating in a gravitational field, is one type of convection. In this type of convection, the lower layers of the substance warm up, become lighter, and rise, while the upper layers cool down, become heavier, and sink. This cycle then repeats. The process occurs repeatedly under specific conditions.
Atmospheric pressure refers to the force exerted by the atmosphere on all objects within it and the Earth’s surface. It is equal to the absolute value of the force per unit area acting perpendicular to the surface. In a stationary atmosphere at rest, the pressure is determined by the weight of the column of air above it divided by the cross-sectional area. Atmospheric pressure is a thermodynamic parameter that varies in different locations and over time. It is important to note that pressure is a scalar quantity.
Meteorological inversion refers to the abnormal change in any atmospheric parameter with increasing altitude. The most common type is temperature inversion, where the temperature increases instead of decreasing as you go higher in the atmosphere (see Earth’s atmosphere). Mountain and valley winds also contribute significantly to this phenomenon.
Atmospheric circulation refers to the movement of air currents across the Earth’s surface. These currents can range in scale from tens and hundreds of meters, creating localized winds, to hundreds and thousands of kilometers, forming cyclones, anticyclones, monsoons, and trade winds in the troposphere. In the stratosphere, there are primarily zonal transfers, which contribute to latitudinal zonality.
Clouds are formed when water vapor in the atmosphere condenses and becomes visible to the naked eye from both the Earth’s surface and outer space. In a broad sense, clouds are collections of individual particles that gather in a specific volume.
The polar cell, also known as the polar vortex, is a component of the Earth’s atmospheric circulation in the polar regions. It takes the form of a surface vortex that rotates westward from the poles, as well as a high-altitude vortex that rotates eastward.
The geographic envelope is a complex outer layer of the Earth, which encompasses the various surface geospheres. It is a comprehensive and interconnected concept in geography, encompassing the lower atmosphere, upper crust, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
The Parnic effect refers to the phenomenon of the lower atmosphere of a planet experiencing higher temperatures compared to the effective temperature, which is the temperature observed from space based on the planet’s thermal radiation.
The magnetopause is the boundary of a celestial body’s magnetosphere where the pressure of the magnetic field is equal to the pressure of the plasma surrounding the magnetosphere.
Venus’ gas envelope is its atmosphere, which mainly consists of carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Trace amounts of other compounds are also present. The atmosphere contains sulfuric acid clouds, which obstruct visibility of the surface in visible light. It is only transparent in the radio and microwave bands, as well as certain parts of the near infrared. Compared to Earth’s atmosphere, Venus’ atmosphere is much denser and hotter, with an average surface temperature of.
The jet stream is a narrow band of strong wind in the upper troposphere, bounded by the tropopause, characterized by high velocities (typically exceeding 25 m/s along the axis) and wind gradients (vertical gradients exceeding 5 m/s at 1 km and horizontal gradients exceeding 10 m/s at 100 km). The lower boundary of the jet stream is usually found at an altitude of 5-7 km, occasionally at 2-4 km, and in the most powerful systems with large temperature gradients, it can be as low as 500-1000 m.
An atmospheric front, derived from the Greek words “ατμός” meaning vapor, “σφαῖρα” meaning ball, and the Latin word “frontis” meaning forehead or front side, refers to a transitional zone in the troposphere between adjacent air masses that have different physical properties.
Planetary Wind or the dissipation of planetary atmospheres refers to the process of gases being lost from the atmospheres of planets as they dissipate into outer space. The primary cause of atmospheric loss is thermal, which is the result of the thermal motion of molecules. This motion causes gas molecules in the extremely sparse outer layers of the atmosphere to acquire a velocity that surpasses the critical escape velocity, allowing them to escape beyond the planet’s gravitational field. An atmosphere is deemed stable if the average velocity of its molecules does not surpass a certain threshold.
The mantle is a layer located between the crust and core in the planets of the Earth group. It forms when the metallic part separates from the primary planetary substance and goes into the core. The melting of this substance creates the crust of the planet. According to current models, the mantle is primarily composed of peridotites. The planet’s crust, on the other hand, is mainly made up of basalts (although a significant portion of Earth’s crust is composed of granites, which is a key distinction for our planet), and it contains more easily melted elements.
Atmospheric phenomena are visible manifestations of complex physical and chemical processes that occur in the Earth’s atmospheric envelope.
A coronal mass ejection (CME) refers to the ejection of matter from the solar corona. Observing CMEs from the Earth’s surface is a challenging task. It was in the early 1970s when the first visible wavelength observation of coronal emissions took place, utilizing the coronagraph on the Seventh Orbiting Solar Observatory. The investigation of this phenomenon continued in 1980 at the SMM station.
A baric gradient is a vector that characterizes the rate of change of atmospheric pressure in space. The numerical value of the baric gradient corresponds to the pressure change (in millibars) per unit distance along the normal to the isobaric surface, in the direction where the pressure decreases most rapidly.
Cumulus clouds, also known by their Latin name Cumulus, are dense, brilliantly white clouds that show significant vertical growth during daylight hours. These clouds are closely linked to the development of convection in the lower and partially middle troposphere.
The ozone layer is a portion of the stratosphere located at an altitude of 20 to 25 km (25-30 km in tropical latitudes, 20-25 km in temperate latitudes, and 15-20 km in polar latitudes). It contains the highest concentration of ozone, a molecule composed of three oxygen atoms (O3). This layer forms as a result of the Sun’s ultraviolet radiation interacting with molecular oxygen (O2). The dissociation processes of oxygen atoms, which then combine to form ozone, contribute to its highest intensity. The ozone layer also absorbs near-visible radiation.
Variations of solar radiation (solar variations) refer to alterations in the temporal patterns of the Sun’s current radiation, its spectral distribution, and the accompanying phenomena. These changes can be classified into periodic components, with the most prominent being the eleven-year solar cycle, and non-periodic changes.
Smoke (or atmospheric haze) is a consistent layer of light that becomes more prominent as the distance from the observer increases, obscuring parts of the surrounding landscape.
The liquid layer that surrounds the Earth’s solid inner core is known as the outer core. This layer is approximately 2266 kilometers thick and is primarily composed of iron and nickel. Positioned between the inner core and the mantle, the outer core has an outer boundary that lies approximately 2,890 kilometers (1,800 miles) beneath the Earth’s surface. The transition between the inner core and the outer core occurs at a depth of about 5,150 kilometers (5,150 miles) below the Earth’s surface.
Temperature, a term derived from the Latin word “temperatura” which means proper mixing or normal state, is a physical quantity that serves to characterize a thermodynamic system. It provides a quantitative measure of the varying degrees of heat within different bodies.
The interplanetary medium refers to the matter and fields that occupy the space within the solar system, excluding planets and other celestial bodies. It extends from the solar corona to the boundaries of the heliosphere. This medium consists primarily of the solar wind (the wind emanating from the central star in a star system), the interplanetary magnetic field, cosmic rays (high-energy charged particles), neutral gas, interplanetary dust, and electromagnetic radiation. It plays a crucial role in the dynamics of the solar system.
The solar constant represents the total power of solar radiation that passes through a unit area perpendicular to the flux at a distance of one astronomical unit from the Sun, outside the Earth’s atmosphere. Based on extra-atmospheric measurements, the solar constant is determined to be 1367 W/m² or 1.959 cal/cm²-min.
The radiation balance of the Earth’s surface refers to the total amount of radiation fluxes within a specific volume or on a particular surface. It is determined by calculating the difference between the absorbed radiation and the effective radiation emitted by the surface. Generally, the annual values of the radiation balance are positive for the Earth. This factor plays a crucial role in shaping the climate and influencing the microclimate of crops, as well as the conditions for their photosynthesis.
Feather clouds are individual, delicate, thread-like clouds that resemble thin, white fibers or slightly gray elongated ridges and wisps. They often resemble a feathery beard and are typically white in color. Sometimes, these clouds are arranged in strips that cross the sky, giving the impression of meridians. Due to perspective, they appear to converge at one or two diametrically opposite points on the horizon, most commonly in the southwest and northeast directions. During sunrise and sunset, these puffy clouds can take on pink and golden hues.
Air masses refer to large volumes of air in the Earth’s lower atmosphere, specifically the troposphere. These air masses have horizontal dimensions that can span many hundreds or even thousands of kilometers, and vertical dimensions of several kilometers. They are characterized by their relatively uniform temperature and moisture content horizontally.
The Earth’s core is the central and deepest part of the planet Earth. It is located beneath the Earth’s mantle and is believed to be made up of an iron-nickel alloy with some other siderophilic elements mixed in. The core is approximately 2900 km in depth and has an average radius of 3500 km. It is comprised of a solid inner core, which has a radius of about 1300 km, and a liquid outer core, which has a thickness of approximately 2200 km. Sometimes, a transition zone is identified between these two layers. It is believed that the temperature on the surface of the solid core of the Earth can reach.
Mars is currently the most fascinating planet in the solar system to investigate. With its atmosphere, albeit considerably thinner than Earth’s, we can delve into the processes within it that shape the weather and, consequently, the climate. While not particularly hospitable for humans, it bears the closest resemblance to our own planet. It is speculated that in the past, Mars’s climate may have been warmer and wetter, with liquid water and even rainfall on its surface.
The magnetosphere, also known as the magnetic sphere, refers to the region of space surrounding a celestial body where the behavior of the plasma surrounding the body is influenced by the body’s magnetic field.
A bar, known as “бар” in Russian and internationally, is an alternative unit of pressure measurement that is roughly equivalent to one atmosphere. One bar is equal to 105 Pa or 106 dyne/cm² in the GHS system.
Condensation is the process by which a substance changes from a gaseous state to a liquid or solid state. This is the opposite of sublimation, which is when a substance changes directly from a solid to a gaseous state. The critical temperature is the highest temperature at which condensation can occur. The vapor that can undergo condensation can be either saturated or unsaturated.
Comet dust is cosmic dust that originates from comets. The examination of comet dust can provide valuable information about the timing of comet formation, which is believed to reflect the timing of the formation of our solar system. In particular, long-period comets spend most of their time far away from the Sun, where the temperature is too low for vaporization to occur. It is only when a comet approaches the Sun and experiences warmth that it releases gas and dust, which can be observed and studied. This is when comet dust particles become visible.
Geospheres, derived from the Greek words “γῆ” meaning Earth and “σφαῖρα” meaning ball, are the solid and discontinuous spherical shells that make up the planet Earth.
Atmospheric visibility, which refers to the range of an object’s visibility through the atmosphere, is a meteorological parameter. It is a measure of the transparency of the atmosphere and its ability to visually distinguish distant objects that are separated by a layer of air with a certain level of turbidity.
The troposphere, which is a fundamental part of the Earth’s atmosphere, is located in close proximity to the planet’s surface. It has a direct impact on the Earth and all living organisms on a daily basis.
Location in space
The upper boundary of the troposphere is approximately 12 kilometers high. This measurement is not fixed and can vary based on geographic latitude and climatic conditions. During winter and cyclones, the height decreases, while during summer and anticyclones, it increases. For example, in polar regions, the upper boundary is around 8 km, while near the equator, it reaches about 17 km. In temperate latitudes, it is around 11 km. Therefore, it can be concluded that the altitude at which the troposphere ends varies.
As you ascend, the pressure and temperature in the troposphere decrease by 0.5 to 0.7 degrees every 100 meters. At an unspecified altitude, it reaches minus 40 – 80 C and ceases to decline. The tropopause, which is the upper layer, commences. It extends to a height of several hundred meters to 3 km. It serves as a boundary between the two spheres. The thickness of the troposphere varies.
The tropopause is frequently formed and disrupted by weather patterns. For instance, in the subtropics, this occurs under the influence of jet streams. It regulates the climate by adapting to polar and tropical currents. This complex process often creates two tropopauses, one of which is dissipating. Therefore, the thickness of the troposphere is directly influenced by the temperature profile.
Understanding the troposphere
The troposphere, which is the lower layer of the Earth’s atmosphere, is characterized by its high concentration of water vapor and air. In fact, it contains about 90% of the water vapor and 80% of the air found in the entire atmosphere. This high concentration leads to a dense atmosphere in the lower troposphere, with a density of 103 g/m3. However, as we move towards the boundary layer, the density decreases to about 10 g/m3, parallel to the temperature decrease. The composition of the lower layer of the troposphere is influenced by various factors, including life processes on Earth and the release of gases from crustal fractures.
The air in the troposphere, especially in its near-Earth part, is primarily composed of nitrogen, which makes up more than half of its composition (78%). However, it also contains other components. Additionally, the lower part of the troposphere, which is closer to the Earth’s surface, is often filled with flying microorganisms and dust particles.
The stratosphere, situated above the tropopause, is known for its elevated levels of ozone. It is in this region that the ozone layer is found, providing crucial protection against solar radiation for all life on Earth. The areas nearest to the tropopause contain abundant aerosol particles, often brought in by volcanic eruptions. Water vapor is almost nonexistent in this layer, and the temperature increases to 0 degrees Celsius as it reaches the mesosphere.
The troposphere exhibits the following characteristics:
- Temperature decreases as distance from the Earth increases;
- Higher levels of humidity;
- Greater density;
- Formation of air pockets;
- Influence on climate formation.
[caution]Caution. The majority of weather conditions are created primarily within the upper atmospheric layer. Occasionally, moisture accumulation occurs within the lower stratosphere at an elevation of 25 km, resulting in the formation of nacreous clouds.[/caution].
The troposphere exhibits a variety of distinct strata within its structure. These tropospheric characteristics greatly impact the development of weather phenomena and overall climate.
Functions
It is a well-known fact that the Earth gets heated by sunlight as it travels through the atmosphere. However, as we move higher above the ground, the temperature tends to decrease.
Solar energy is composed of short-wave rays that directly hit the Earth’s surface, bypassing the atmosphere. On the other hand, long-wave rays are emitted from the warmed surface and contribute to warming the troposphere. This natural process can be compared to the functioning of a greenhouse. Just like the glass windows of a greenhouse allow sunlight to enter and warm the interior, the Earth’s energy warms the troposphere. This phenomenon is commonly referred to as the “greenhouse effect”.
The sun, as a celestial luminary, emits an equal amount of heat each day. Land and water bodies, along with different parts of these bodies, receive this heat in various ways. The heat takes time to pass through the atmospheric barrier. However, the movement of air under the influence of winds alters its components and temperature. This movement of air masses is a crucial characteristic of the troposphere. It can occur vertically or horizontally.
An important factor in this process is the presence of dust, which accumulates in the surface layer. This dust consists of specific particles that are necessary for condensation to occur. Interestingly, the formation of dust provides some protection against ultraviolet radiation.
Formation processes
Let’s consider the formation processes that occur in the atmosphere:
- Cloud formation – occurs when water vapor and dust particles come together. Clouds can appear dark and gloomy due to their high condensate content, and their color is determined by their density. Meteorology does not have a specific term for cloudiness. Cumulus clouds, in particular, have the potential to cause storms and tornadoes.
- Precipitation – happens when the moisture content in clouds reaches a critical point. The troposphere contains more than half of the moisture in the atmosphere. Once the clouds are completely filled with moisture, it can result in rain or snowfall.
- Fogs are formed by the condensation of tiny water droplets. They occur at temperatures ranging from -15 to -100C. Fogs are typically seen in frosty weather conditions in cities, airfields, and railroad stations. They are a result of gases being emitted into the atmosphere by machinery through exhaust pipes.
- Electrical phenomena such as thunderstorms, lightning, and zarnitsa occur in the tropospheric boundary. The tropopause can be located within thunderstorm clouds or it can be lower. It collapses to occupy the upper position, causing turbulence.
- Lithometeors, such as dusty pozem, haze, sandstorms, whirlwinds, and smoke, are formed by the wind. The wind lifts particles of sand and dust from the ground and spreads them to various distances, reducing visibility.
- Wind occurs as a result of the Earth’s crust being heated unevenly, causing a difference in pressure between warm and cold air layers.
Anomaly
The layer responsible for meteorological conditions is now clear, but there is also air above the troposphere. This allows for the observation of the Northern Lights in the polar latitudes during the winter-spring period. The Northern Lights is created at an altitude ranging from 15 to 27 kilometers. It is necessary for the temperature in the mesosphere to be below 195 degrees Kelvin. This effect can be achieved under the condition of active volcanism. The formation of a specific substance is influenced by the seismographic factor.
- Gradually increase speed while ascending;
- Approach the obstacle at a 30-degree angle;
- Maintain a speed of 20 knots or higher.
Cyclone (area of low pressure)
Final verdict
The outermost layer of the earth acts as a creator of atmospheric conditions. The makeup of the lower stratosphere and upper troposphere is virtually indistinguishable. Within these sectors of the atmosphere, essential phenomena occur.
Air masses play a crucial role in the troposphere, as they are massive accumulations of air that span vast horizontal distances, rivaling the size of entire countries or parts of continents. These air masses are confined within the upper boundary of the troposphere. This article provides insights into the formation of air masses, their impact on weather patterns, and the various properties that are influenced by them.
There are distinct Arctic, temperate, tropical, and equatorial air masses based on their place of origin. These air masses exhibit a temperature increase as one moves from the poles towards the equator. Within each group, there are both marine and continental masses.
Coastal areas always receive more precipitation compared to inland areas due to the moisture saturation of the air above the sea.
Maritime air masses play a moderating role in continental climates, with warm currents exerting a particularly significant influence.
The climate of Western Europe is impacted by the warm Gulf Stream and Atlantic winds, which bring moisture and warmth.
Continental air masses, on the other hand, are dry, and their temperature varies with the seasons – they bring severe frosts in winter and hot weather in summer. Precipitation is scarce regardless of the season. This is how Yakutia’s highly continental climate is formed.
If continental masses are created above hot deserts, their primary characteristics are not influenced by seasons, and they are distinguished by their high temperatures.
The movement of air masses is monitored by weather satellites, enabling accurate weather predictions.
The Formation of Atmospheric Fronts
When air masses with distinct characteristics converge, an atmospheric front zone is formed.
The passage of the front is detected through precipitation and wind patterns. When a cold mass moves in, it brings heavy showers with hail or snowfall, thunderstorms (sometimes even in winter) and strong gusts of wind. On the other hand, warm masses tend to move slowly, resulting in light drizzle or snow, and sleet accompanied by weaker winds.
Off the coast of Australia, where the marine and mainland masses meet, unique horizontal tubular clouds form, creating air vortices inside. These peculiar formations are known as “morning Gloria” and are a rare sight for the locals.
