In ancient times, scientists began to realize that it is not the Sun that revolves around our planet, but rather the opposite is true. This groundbreaking idea was solidified by Nicolaus Copernicus. The Polish astronomer developed his heliocentric system, which convincingly proved that the Earth is not the center of the Universe. According to Copernicus, all the planets orbit the Sun in their respective orbits. His groundbreaking work, “On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres,” was published in Nuremberg, Germany in 1543.
Ptolemy, an ancient Greek astronomer, was the first to propose his theories on the celestial positioning of planets in his work “The Great Mathematical Construction of Astronomy”. He was the pioneer in suggesting that these celestial bodies move in circular motions. However, Ptolemy mistakenly believed that all planets, including the Moon and the Sun, revolve around the Earth. Prior to the discoveries made by Copernicus, Ptolemy’s treatise was widely accepted in both the Arab and Western civilizations.
From Brahe to Kepler: A Journey through Time
Following the death of Copernicus, the Danish scientist Tycho Brahe took up his work. Brahe, who was a man of considerable wealth, transformed one of his own islands into a laboratory where he meticulously recorded his observations of celestial bodies using impressive bronze circles. Brahe’s findings proved instrumental in the research conducted by mathematician Johannes Kepler. It was Kepler, a German scientist, who ultimately organized and codified the movements of the planets within the solar system, ultimately formulating his now-famous three laws.
Kepler was the first to demonstrate that the Sun is orbited by all six known planets not in circular paths, but in elliptical ones. Isaac Newton, an Englishman, made a groundbreaking discovery with the law of universal gravitation, greatly enhancing our knowledge of the elliptical orbits of celestial objects. His explanation for how the Moon affects Earth’s tides was widely accepted in the scientific community.
Orbiting the Sun
The sizes of the largest moons in the solar system and the planets of the Earth group can be compared.
The duration of the planets’ orbits around the Sun naturally varies. For example, in the case of Mercury, which is the closest to the Sun, it takes 88 days on Earth. Our planet, Earth, completes its orbit in 365 days and 6 hours. The largest planet in the solar system, Jupiter, completes its orbit in 11.9 Earth years. And Pluto, the most distant planet from the Sun, takes 247.7 years to complete its orbit.
As part of the geography curriculum, we all learn about the Solar System and its 8 planets in our school astronomy course. We are aware that these planets orbit around the Sun, but not everyone is familiar with the existence of celestial bodies that have a retrograde rotation. One may wonder which planet rotates in the opposite direction? In reality, there are a few such planets. Venus, Uranus, and a newly discovered planet located on the far side of Neptune are examples of celestial bodies with retrograde rotation.
Retrograde rotation
The motion of each planet is governed by the same sequence, and it is the solar wind, meteorites, and asteroids that, upon impact, cause the planet to revolve around its axis. However, gravity plays the primary role in the movement of celestial objects. Each celestial body has its own axis inclination and orbit, and any changes to these factors will affect its rotation. Planets with an orbital inclination angle of -90° to 90° rotate counterclockwise, whereas celestial bodies with an angle of 90° to 180° are classified as having retrograde rotation.
The tilt of the axis
Regarding the tilt of the axis, retrograde celestial bodies have an inclination angle ranging from 90° to 270°. For instance, Venus possesses an axis inclination angle of 177.36°, which hinders its counterclockwise motion, while the recently detected celestial object Nika has an inclination angle of 110°. It is worth mentioning that the impact of a celestial body’s mass on its rotation is not yet comprehensively comprehended.
Stationary Mercury
In addition to retrograde motion, there exists a planet in our solar system that has a relatively fixed rotation – this planet is Mercury, which does not have any natural satellites. Retrograde rotation of planets is not an uncommon phenomenon, although it is more commonly observed outside of our solar system. As of now, there is no universally accepted model to explain retrograde rotation, leaving room for young astronomers to make exciting discoveries.
There are multiple factors contributing to the alteration of planetary trajectories:
- collisions with larger celestial objects
- changes in orbital inclination
- variations in axial tilt
- fluctuations in the gravitational field (such as interference from asteroids, meteorites, space debris, etc.).
Furthermore, retrograde rotation can be induced by the presence of another celestial body in orbit. Some suggest that the retrograde motion of Venus may be attributed to solar tides, which have decelerated its rotation.
Planetary Formation
During their formation, almost every planet experienced numerous impacts from asteroids, causing changes in their shape and orbital radius. The close proximity of a group of planets and the accumulation of space debris also play a significant role, leading to a disruption of the gravitational field.
Our planet is constantly in motion. It moves through space along with the Sun, revolving around the center of the Galaxy. This movement is crucial for all forms of life on Earth. Additionally, the Earth’s rotation around the Sun and its own axis is of utmost importance. Without this motion, the conditions on our planet would be unsuitable for supporting life.
Solar System
The solar system is composed of various celestial bodies, including the planet Earth. Scientists estimate that Earth was formed over 4.5 billion years ago and has remained at a relatively stable distance from the Sun throughout its existence. This is due to a delicate balance between the planet’s speed and the gravitational pull of the Sun. While Earth’s orbit is not perfectly circular, it has remained stable enough to prevent it from falling into the Sun or drifting off into space. Any significant change in the Sun’s gravitational force or Earth’s speed could disrupt this delicate balance and alter Earth’s position within the solar system.
The Earth’s distance from the Sun allows for the maintenance of an ideal surface temperature. The atmosphere also plays a crucial role in this process. Due to the Earth’s rotation around the Sun, the seasons go through periodic changes. Nature has adapted to these cycles. However, if our planet were positioned farther away, the temperature would plummet to negative values. Conversely, if it were closer, the water would evaporate due to the thermometer surpassing its boiling point.
The orbit of a planet around a star is known as its trajectory. It is not a perfect circular path, but rather an elliptical one. The difference between the furthest and closest points on the orbit can reach up to 5 million kilometers. The point on the orbit that is closest to the Sun, known as perihelion, is located at a distance of 147 kilometers. This point is typically reached by Earth in the month of January. Conversely, in July, the planet is at its greatest distance from the star, which can reach up to 152 million kilometers. This point is known as aphelion.
The rotation of the Earth on its axis and its orbit around the Sun result in changes in daily patterns and yearly seasons, respectively.
From an individual’s perspective, it is impossible to perceive the movement of the planet around the central point of the solar system. This is due to the immense mass of the Earth. However, in reality, we are actually traversing about 30 km through space every second. Although this may seem unfathomable, it is indeed the calculated truth. On average, the Earth is believed to be situated approximately 150 million kilometers away from the Sun. Over the course of 365 days, it completes one full revolution around the Sun. This results in a total distance traveled of nearly a billion kilometers.
More precisely, our planet covers a distance of 942 million kilometers in a year as it orbits the Sun in an elliptical path. We accompany this celestial body in space, maintaining a speed of 107,000 kilometers per hour. The direction of rotation is counterclockwise, proceeding from west to east.
The completion of one full revolution of the planet does not take exactly 365 days, as is commonly thought. In fact, it takes about six more hours. However, for the sake of convenience in record-keeping, these extra hours are accounted for by adding one extra day every four years. This additional day is added to the month of February, making it a leap year.
The Earth’s rotation speed around the Sun is not consistent. It varies from the average value due to the elliptical path it follows. The difference in speed is most noticeable at the points of perihelion and aphelion, with a variation of 1 km/sec. Although these changes are not easily perceivable, they affect all objects, including ourselves, as we all move within the same coordinate system.
The Earth’s change of seasons is made possible by its rotation around the Sun and the tilt of its axis. This phenomenon is less noticeable at the equator, but becomes more apparent closer to the poles. The energy from the Sun heats the northern and southern hemispheres unevenly.
As the Earth orbits around the Sun, it passes through four specific points in its orbit. During each semiannual cycle, these points cause the Earth to appear closer or further from the Sun (in December and June – known as solstice days). Consequently, the areas where the Earth’s surface is heated more experience higher temperatures, which are typically referred to as summer. In the other hemisphere, it is noticeably colder during this time, resulting in winter.
Following three months of this movement occurring every six months, the planetary axis aligns in a manner whereby both hemispheres experience similar heating conditions. During this time (March and September – equinox days), the temperature patterns are roughly identical. Subsequently, autumn and spring commence, contingent upon the hemisphere.
Movement of the Earth
The Earth revolves around a fixed axis, similar to a spinning top. If you place the base of a spinning top on a plane surface, it will maintain its balance. However, if the spinning speed slows down, the top will eventually fall over.
Unlike other celestial bodies, the Earth doesn’t have a solid foundation. It is influenced by the gravitational forces of the Sun, Moon, and other objects in the solar system and the universe. Nevertheless, it manages to maintain its constant position in space. The initial rotational speed that the Earth acquired during its formation is sufficient to maintain its relative equilibrium.
The planet’s ball is not traversed by the Earth’s axis perpendicularity. It is inclined at a 66°33′ angle. The Earth’s revolution around its axis and the Sun enables the alteration of seasons. If it lacked a precise orientation, the planet would be “tumbling” in the vastness of space. The stability of environmental conditions and life processes on its surface would be implausible.
Earth’s Axial Rotation
The Earth completes one revolution around the Sun in a year, resulting in the change of seasons. On a daily basis, the Earth experiences day and night as it rotates. Observing the Earth’s North Pole from space, it can be seen rotating counterclockwise, completing a full revolution in approximately 24 hours, which is known as a day.
The speed of rotation determines how quickly day and night alternate. The Earth rotates about 15 degrees in one hour. However, the rate of rotation varies at different points on its surface due to its spherical shape. The linear velocity at the equator is 1,669 km/hour or 464 m/sec. As one moves closer to the poles, this velocity decreases. At the thirtieth latitude, the linear speed is reduced to 1,445 km/hour or 400 m/sec.
Due to the axial rotation of the planet, it takes on a slightly compressed form from the poles. Additionally, this movement “compels” moving objects (such as air and water currents) to divert from their initial path (known as the Coriolis force). Tides are another significant outcome of this rotational motion.
Transformation of Day and Night
At any given moment, a spherical object with a solitary light source is only illuminated on one side. This phenomenon can be observed on our planet, where one part is experiencing daytime while the other remains hidden from the Sun, resulting in nightfall. The rotation of the Earth’s axis allows for the alternating occurrence of these periods.
Aside from the lighting conditions, the surface of the planet also undergoes changes in terms of heat distribution from the light source. This cyclic process holds great importance as it allows for a relatively rapid transition between light and thermal regimes. Within a 24-hour period, the planet’s surface does not have enough time to either become overly heated or excessively cooled, ensuring that it remains within the optimal temperature range.
The consistent speed at which the Earth rotates around the Sun and its axis plays a crucial role in supporting animal life. It is this constancy in the Earth’s orbit that allows the planet to remain within the optimal temperature range for sustaining life. Additionally, the rotation of the Earth’s axis ensures the regular cycle of day and night, which is essential for the survival and continuity of life on Earth.
Irregular Rotation
Throughout its history, humanity has grown accustomed to the constant cycle of day and night. This has served as a benchmark for time and a symbol of the consistency of life’s processes. However, the duration of Earth’s rotation around the Sun is influenced by various factors, such as the elliptical shape of its orbit and the presence of other planets in the solar system.
There is another interesting aspect regarding the length of the day. The Earth’s axial rotation is not constant and experiences changes over time. There are a few key factors that contribute to this phenomenon. Firstly, seasonal variations in the atmosphere and precipitation patterns play a significant role. Additionally, the tidal wave that acts against the Earth’s motion constantly causes it to slow down. Although this effect is minimal (only 1 second over a span of 40 thousand years), it has had a substantial impact over the course of 1 billion years, increasing the duration of the day by 7 hours (from 17 to 24).
The study of the Earth’s rotation around the Sun and its axis holds significant practical and scientific importance. These investigations not only contribute to the precision of determining stellar coordinates but also reveal patterns that can impact human life and natural phenomena in fields like hydrometeorology.
Hope is not the belief that everything will turn out well, but the assurance that what is happening has significance, regardless of the outcome.
– Vaclav Havel
This week, I received numerous thought-provoking questions, giving me plenty of options to choose from. However, in response to two recent inquiries about the uniform direction of planetary orbits and the uniqueness of our solar system, I have decided to address a question posed by Nick Ham:
Given the myriad of potential outcomes, the likelihood of its occurrence appears quite slim.
Today, we have achieved an extraordinary level of precision in mapping the paths of all the planets. Our findings reveal a remarkable discovery: all the planets travel within a common two-dimensional plane, orbiting around the Sun. What is even more astonishing is that the variance in their orbital planes does not exceed 7 degrees.
Moreover, if we eliminate Mercury, which is the innermost planet and has the most inclined plane of rotation, all the other planets seem to be perfectly aligned: the difference from the average orbital plane is approximately two degrees.
In addition, all the planets are relatively well aligned with the Sun’s axis of rotation: just like the planets orbit around the Sun, the Sun also revolves around its own axis. As expected, the Sun’s axis of rotation deviates by only 7° from the axes of the planets’ orbits.
Nevertheless, it appears improbable that this scenario would occur unless some external force has compressed the planets’ orbits onto a single plane. One would anticipate the planets’ orbits to be randomly oriented, as gravity, the force responsible for maintaining the planets in their orbits, operates uniformly in all three dimensions.
Instead of a tidy and consistent collection of nearly perfect circles, one would expect a jumble. Interestingly, if one travels far enough away from the Sun, past the planets with asteroids, past the orbits of comets like Halley, and beyond the Kuiper belt, this is precisely the arrangement that is discovered.
What caused the planets to form a single disk instead of orbiting the Sun in various planes?
To understand this, let’s revisit the period when the Sun was being formed, emerging from a gas cloud made up of the same material that gives rise to all the new stars in the Universe.
When a molecular cloud reaches a sufficient size and becomes gravitationally bound and cold enough to contract and collapse due to its own gravity, such as the Pipe nebula shown on the left, it will form regions of sufficient density where new star clusters will develop, as shown on the right.
It is evident that this nebula, along with others like it, will not have a perfectly spherical shape. Instead, it possesses an irregular and elongated form. Imperfections are not overlooked by gravity, and due to gravity being an accelerating force that quadruples with every halving of distance, even minor irregularities in the initial shape are rapidly magnified.
The outcome is an irregularly shaped nebula that is actively creating stars, with star formation occurring in regions of high gas density. Upon closer inspection, the individual stars within the nebula exhibit a near-perfect spherical shape, similar to our own Sun.
However, just like the nebula acquired an asymmetrical shape, the individual stars that originated from within emerged from the non-ideal, excessively dense asymmetrical clusters of matter inside the nebula.
When they collapse, they will mainly do so in one (out of three) dimensions. Because matter, including you, me, and atoms composed of nuclei and electrons, tends to clump together and interact, if it is thrown towards other matter, it will result in the formation of an elongated disk of matter. Although gravity will attract most of the matter towards the center, where a star will form, around the star, a protoplanetary disk will also form. Thanks to the Hubble telescope, we have directly observed such disks!
Here is the initial hint as to why you will receive an object arranged in a plane rather than a sphere with haphazardly floating planets. Additionally, we must examine the outcomes of the computer simulations since our presence in the early solar system has not been sufficiently lengthy to directly observe this development – it typically requires approximately one million years.
This is the information provided by the simulations.
The protoplanetary disk, which is flat in one dimension, will continue to decrease in size as more and more gas is attracted towards its center. However, as long as a significant amount of material is pulled inward, a considerable portion of it will eventually settle into a stable orbit within the disk.
The reason for this is the need to conserve a physical quantity known as momentum, which indicates the rotational motion of the entire system – including gas, dust, star, and other components. Due to the nature of momentum and its relatively even distribution among the various particles within the disk, it follows that everything inside the disk should move in the same direction (either clockwise or counterclockwise). As time goes on, the disk reaches a stable size and thickness, allowing small gravitational disturbances to grow into planets.
There are certainly minor variations in the size of the disk across its different sections (as well as gravitational interactions between planets), and initial conditions also have a small impact. The star that forms at the center is not a mere point in space, but rather a substantial object spanning millions of kilometers in diameter. When all these factors are taken into account, they give rise to a distribution of matter that is not perfectly flat, but rather close to it in shape.
In fact, it is only relatively recently that we have discovered the first planetary system in the process of forming planets, and interestingly enough, their orbits are all aligned in the same plane.
In the upper left corner, behind the nebula, there is a young star called HL Taurus. This star is surrounded by a protoplanetary disk and is located 450 light-years away. HL Taurus is relatively young, being only one million years old. This stunning image was captured with the help of ALMA, a long-base array that detects light at millimeter wavelengths, which are significantly longer than visible light.
It is evident that there exists a disk, containing all the matter in a singular plane, with dark gaps interspersed throughout. These gaps correspond to nascent planets that have amassed nearby matter! We do not possess knowledge regarding which ones will amalgamate, which ones will be expelled, and which ones will approach the star and be engulfed by its gravitational pull, but we are currently observing a critical phase in the development of a youthful solar system.
So what is the reason behind all the planets existing on the same plane? This is due to their formation from an asymmetrical gas cloud, initially collapsing along the shortest axis; the matter becomes flattened and cohesive, subsequently shrinking inward while simultaneously rotating around the central axis. The planets are created by irregularities within the matter of the disk, resulting in their orbits aligning within the same plane, differing from one another by only a small number of degrees.
There is absolutely no doubt today that the Sun is orbited by the Earth. While not too long ago, in the grand scheme of the Universe’s history, people were convinced that the Earth was at the center of our galaxy, now there is no question that the opposite is true.
Today, we will explore the reasons behind why the Earth, along with all the other planets, revolve around the Sun.
Reasons behind the orbital movement of planets around the Sun
The Earth and other planets in our solar system follow their unique paths as they orbit around the Sun. Each planet moves at its own speed and follows a distinct trajectory, but they all remain bound to our natural star.
Our objective is to comprehend in the simplest and most accessible way why the Sun has become the central force in the universe, exerting its gravitational pull on all other celestial bodies.
We commence with the fact that the Sun is the most massive entity in our galaxy. Its mass surpasses that of all other objects combined. According to the laws of physics, including the universal law of gravitation, bodies with lesser mass are attracted to those with greater mass. This explains why all planets, moons, and other celestial objects are drawn towards the Sun, the largest among them.
On Earth, the gravitational force operates in a manner that is comparable. Take a tennis ball tossed into the air, for instance. It descends, drawn towards the surface of our planet.
When comprehending the concept of planets being drawn towards the Sun, a clear question arises: why don’t they plummet onto the star’s surface, but instead orbit around it along their own path.
There is a comparable scenario unfolding in the Cosmos, where the entirety of existence orbits around the Sun. The path that each object takes is determined by its velocity and mass, and these values vary for each individual object, as you are aware.
This is why the Earth and other planets revolve around the Sun, and not the other way around.
Indeed: why don’t the planets fall into the Sun and collide with each other? Why don’t they eventually drift off into outer space, away from their home star?
The reason why the planets move in orbits around the Sun is due to the influence of the law of universal gravitation.
As a result of their motion, each planet has a tendency to move away from the Sun in a straight line, but the gravitational pull of the star’s immense mass prevents this from happening and keeps the planets in their orbits. This is why all planets move in closed elliptical orbits.
As a planet comes into closer proximity to its star, the gravitational force between them intensifies, resulting in a stronger pull. Conversely, as the planet moves farther away from the star, the gravitational force weakens to some extent. This fluctuation in gravitational force affects the velocity of the planets, with the fluctuations becoming more pronounced as the planets approach the Sun.
Notably, the inner planets of our solar system experience a significantly stronger gravitational pull compared to the outer planets. Consequently, Mercury maintains an average speed of approximately 50 kilometers per second, whereas Pluto moves at a much slower pace of around 5 kilometers per second.
In summary, the equilibrium of our solar system is governed by the law of universal gravitation and Newton’s three laws.
Reasons for the movement of planets around the Sun
All celestial bodies, including planets, have a peculiar motion around the Sun, following elliptical paths with the Sun at one of the focal points. The speed at which a celestial body moves in its orbit increases as it gets closer to the Sun.
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There is no denying today that the Sun is at the center of our solar system and that the planets revolve around it. In the not too distant past, in the grand scheme of the universe, people held the belief that the Earth was the center of our galaxy. However, now it is widely accepted that this is not the case and that the opposite is true.
What causes the Earth to rotate?
During the Middle Ages, the prevailing belief was that the Earth remained still while the Sun and other planets orbited around it. However, in the 16th century, astronomers were able to prove otherwise. Although many credit Galileo with this discovery, it was actually Nicolaus Copernicus who first proposed the idea.
In 1543, Copernicus published his treatise “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres,” which presented the theory of the Earth’s motion around the Sun. Initially, this concept faced resistance from both colleagues and the church. However, it eventually had a profound impact on the scientific revolution in Europe and became a cornerstone for further advancements in astronomy.
Check out: The 25th solar activity cycle has begun. A.L. Chizhevsky’s theory on solar-terrestrial connections. The nature of rebellion.
After the theory of Earth’s rotation was proven, scientists started investigating the reasons behind this phenomenon. Throughout the centuries, numerous hypotheses were proposed, but even today no astronomer can provide a definitive answer to this question.
At present, there are three main theories that hold some validity – theories of inertial rotation, magnetic fields, and the influence of solar radiation on the planet.
Scientists can only make educated guesses about the formation of the solar system, based on the knowledge they have gathered over many years. One widely accepted theory is the nebular theory, which suggests that the Sun and planets originated from a molecular cloud. This dense cloud experienced a significant compression due to the force of gravity.
The solar system is estimated to be around 4.6 billion years old. The Sun was the first to form in the central region of the gas and dust cloud. Around it, a protoplanetary disk formed from the material surrounding the center. Eventually, planets, moons, and other celestial bodies emerged from this disk.
The Concept of Inertial Rotation
There is a school of thought among scientists suggesting that the Earth, during its early stages of formation, underwent a process of unwinding and is now rotating solely due to inertia. This hypothesis posits that as the Earth formed from cosmic dust, it gradually attracted other celestial bodies, which contributed to its overall momentum. A similar line of reasoning is applied to other planets within our solar system.
However, this theory faces considerable opposition, as it fails to provide a satisfactory explanation for the varying speeds at which the Earth rotates during different periods. Additionally, it remains unclear why certain planets within the solar system, such as Venus, rotate in a different direction.
Are you in possession of a map of Russia? Take a look, right in the heart of it you will find a vast expanse of nothingness, and below that emptiness lies Krasnoyarsk. As we move upwards from Krasnoyarsk, we trace the path of the Yenisei, a majestic blue line cutting through the land. We follow the Yenisei until it reaches a point where the blue line transforms into a blue ribbon, and the Yenisei ceases to be a river, but rather becomes a sea, a part of the Arctic Ocean. It is at this juncture that the Norilsk Industrial District, the most exceptional and, in many aspects, the most significant Norilsk Industrial District, is situated.
Today, I am going to discuss the primary treasure of the Putorana Plateau, a place that will instantly captivate your imagination!
We will also become acquainted with the aerial gateway of the Norilsk Industrial District – the legendary Alykel Airport – situated exactly halfway between industrial Norilsk and the seaport of Dudinka.
The key characteristic of the Norilsk Industrial District is not its climate – there are colder regions out there. The primary distinguishing factor is its complete isolation from the rest of Russia. There are no existing roadways here. Absolutely none. None whatsoever. Zero roads. In theory, there is a winter road from Urengoy, which some adventurous individuals traverse in March-April, when temperatures rise. However, one only needs to read their accounts to understand that a rational person would not embark on such a risky endeavor.
2. (This picture and the two below do not belong to me).
The nearest major city, Novy Urengoy, is situated 700 kilometers away. The administrative center of the NPR, Krasnoyarsk, is located 1500 kilometers away. It’s like managing Sochi from Moscow!
Furthermore, everything within the Norilsk Industrial District is owned by Norilsk Nickel, a massive corporation. This includes generous salaries and three months of paid vacation per year (family tickets are also covered). The laws and regulations set by Nornickel are more significant here than those of the Russian Federation! Additionally, the city is closed to foreigners, with passport control and various other inconveniences… As a result, the residents of Norilsk rightfully consider themselves as islanders and refer to the rest of Russia as the mainland.
If you were to inquire an average individual to identify our top three renowned airports, they would likely mention Sheremetyevo, Domodedovo, Vnukovo, Pulkovo, Adler… However, if you were to pose the same question to pilots, there would be a wider range of options, with Khorog, Bodaibo, and Norilsk-Alykel emerging as the frontrunners.
3- Khorog is a remarkably intricate and stunning mountain airport situated in a gorge within the Pamirs. One can only imagine how many aircrafts are nestled among those mountains… (photo sourced from the Internet).
4. Bodaibo airport is a popular internet phenomenon, a YouTube sensation, and an iconic representation, a universally recognized depiction of an airport situated in a remote location. The pilots of propeller-driven An-24 planes that fly to Bodaibo often jokingly remark on these images, saying “tanks are not afraid of mud”.
And Norilsk… it’s a destination that many people prefer to avoid. It’s no secret that there are certain flight routes that pilots dread. Take the Moscow-St. Petersburg route, for example. You spend half an hour waiting in line to take off, then the plane quickly gains altitude only to descend just as rapidly. Another half hour is spent waiting in line to land, unload and load passengers, and then it’s back up in the air again. All this effort and energy, yet the flight only lasts a mere two hours (pilots are paid by flight hours). Typically, these troublesome flights are assigned to those who have found themselves in a bind.
You might be wondering, what does this have to do with Norilsk? Well, it’s because many people would rather endure ten flights on the Moscow-St. Petersburg route than take a single flight to Norilsk!
When the wind speed exceeds 15 m/s, airplanes are unable to take off due to the strong force that can blow them off the runway, even when parked. In Norilsk, the winds often reach speeds of 40 meters per second. “Wait, did you say forty meters per second? That’s nearly 150 kilometers per hour! At that velocity, it’s impossible to stick your hand out of a car! How is it possible that the wind has been continuously blowing for two weeks straight? Do airplanes not fly at all? And if the weather is bad, do people stay in hotels for two weeks? How do they manage to commute to work in this weather? Are they transported in a convoy of all-terrain vehicles?” Engaging in conversations with the locals about the weather will surely leave a lasting impression.
The story begins here, at the airstrip. It was constructed in 1950 and has been repaired once since then. The runway is built on permafrost and is supported by stilts, which allow it to float during warmer summers. A few decades ago, there was a dangerous bump in the middle of the runway that caused numerous accidents and damaged several planes due to rough landings. Unfortunately, over the years, the condition of the runway has deteriorated and there is no further room for delay: it must be repaired.
6. The local runway is filled with broken airplanes, creating a cluttered airport. Repairing them in the local conditions is impossible, and removing them is even more challenging. Any salvageable parts have already been taken away, leaving the rest to decay.
7. There are a few more airplanes that have been damaged. The Tu-154 has already had its fair share of flights and is no longer in service. However, the nearly brand new Tu-204, which is valued at 50 million dollars, was the final blow when it crashed on the runway of Alykel.
It is not unusual for runways to undergo repairs. For instance, over the past decade, three airports in Moscow have reconstructed their runways, with each project taking approximately 3-4 years to complete. However, in Norilsk, the temperature rises above freezing for only three months out of the year, making it impossible to lay down a runway during freezing temperatures. To address this issue, a clever solution was devised: in the first year, one-third of the runway is closed off for construction. This portion is diligently worked on and replaced within three months. The remaining two-thirds of the runway are sufficient for accommodating large airplanes with some weight restrictions.
In the second year, we decided to close the final third of the runway for maintenance. We had the same skilled crew that had gained a lot of experience in the first year. The most exciting part of the project was planned for the third year, in 2017, when we would repair the middle third of the runway. The remaining piece of the runway is only about a kilometer long, so no large planes will be able to take off from there. This is where the most interesting part begins. We had a unique situation in civil aviation known as the “Steam train”. For the Moscow-Norilsk flight, passengers in Domodedovo would actually board a large airplane with 200 seats. This plane would then land in either Surgut or Novy Urengoy, where everyone would be transferred to 5-6 small propeller planes like the ATR-42 or An-24. With just a few minutes apart, all these planes would then fly to Alykel! I couldn’t resist participating in such an adventurous experience.
8. The buildings in the Norilsk Industrial District are characterized by their astonishing and occasionally eccentric colors, which serve as a means of combating sensory deprivation during the long, white winter.
It is unbelievable.
10. However, the signage affirms that our current location is indeed Taimyr!
11. Alykel serves not only as an airport, but also as a deserted village for military aviators.
Although this photograph might suggest that the NPR is in disarray, it is actually an exception, depicting the only abandoned site in Mariinsk. We quickly discovered that everything in the NPR is operational: the enormous factories, the vast mines, and the bustling terminals. This is quite impressive, especially when compared to other cities in Russia where abandonment is commonplace.
12. The roads! Despite the constantly shifting permafrost, they are impeccably maintained!
13. Oh, look at that, snow is falling by the roadside! Can you believe it? It’s the middle of summer and the temperature is over thirty degrees!
14. Coming up.
15. A huge copper plant welcomes Norilsk. Take note of the pedestrian crossing! And while it may not be clear in this photo, there are also heated bus stops that are closed.
However, the next section will focus on the city itself. In general, our trip was planned to include a mix of urban tourism and countryside hiking, with one day spent exploring the streets, parks, and museums, and another day dedicated to exploring the surrounding area. So, we continued on to….
Talnakh serves as a resource center for the Norilsk Industrial District. While it is administratively part of Norilsk, in reality, it functions as a separate town for miners. This is where the majority of ore extraction takes place: mines, mines, and more mines.
16. This is still not Talnakh, but rather the Norilsk-Talnakh road. The last thing I expected to see in Norilsk was kilometers of dachas and sanatoriums! It felt more like Ryazanshchina than the Polar Region!
17. Cityscape.
18. Playground for kids.
19. Mines. The total length of tunnels in the Talnakh mines exceeds four hundred kilometers. In fact, this is equivalent to the construction of a second Moscow subway!
However, our focus is not on Talnakh, but on the tremendous impact we experience in this area: the Norilsk Industrial District represents the final frontier of the Siberian plain. In Norilsk, the Putorans commence, followed by the Anabars, the Verkhoyansk Ridge, and ultimately the mountain ranges extending all the way to the Pacific Ocean.
The Putorana Plateau is considered an exquisite treasure of Russia, and it is essential for everyone to venture to these mountains at least once. The best part is, it is conveniently accessible from Norilsk during the summer, and there are even river trams that provide weekend options and week-long tours to Lama Lake.
When it comes to day four, I anticipate having the least to say. The Putorans must be seen or climbed to truly grasp their magnificence; words simply cannot do them justice!
20. Our next adventure awaits as we embark on our ascent!
21. Seriously, the seventieth parallel!
22. The area known as “red rocks” is commonly referred to as Mountain Lake by the locals.
23. Ascend to greater heights, for the mountains of Putoran are our domain!
24. Our destination was finally the glacier. The sight of the white stripes of melting water was truly mesmerizing! The coldness of the ice was both invigorating and refreshing. Sitting under the glacier was a bit unnerving, but we were willing to do anything for the perfect shot!
25. When it’s scorching hot at +30 degrees, you might find yourself longing to plunge into a refreshing snowdrift, or at the very least, lay on top of it. Norilsk – where dreams become a reality.
26. The more elevated the position, the smaller the amount of greenery.
27. However, the flowers are emerging.
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29. These landscapes are so captivating that you could gaze at them endlessly!
30. Furthermore, an entire week!
31. Lake Melkoye, which transforms into Lake Lama, is a prominent local attraction that can be seen in the distance.
Due to an overwhelming surge of emotions, my camera battery died while I was at Lama Lake, so the photos featured here were sourced from professional photographers on the Internet.
32. I have previously described the mesmerizing beauty of this place. And yes, this incredible destination is located in Russia.
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36. There exists a winter variant. By the way, this picture provides a clear demonstration as to why the Putorana Plateau bears its name: the mountain peaks appear to have been sliced off like a knife.
Norilsk residents are fortunate to live in such a stunning location!
While sharing our experiences with each other in this area, we realized how much our perception of Norilsk has changed. It is no longer just a snowy city on the outskirts of civilization, but rather a picturesque region that can be enjoyed during the summer months! Visitors can rent a room in a sanatorium along the Lama River for a week, hire a motorboat for leisurely rides, go fishing, forage for mushrooms, and even sunbathe – all the necessary amenities for recreation are readily available here! The most important factor is choosing the right weather that suits your preferences. For those who prefer warmer temperatures, the best time to visit is during the latter half of July.
37. A river tram in Norilsk.
It is difficult to say goodbye to such breathtaking beauty, but more will be revealed in the next post.
Theory on Magnetic Fields
When attempting to join two magnets with the same charged pole, they will experience a repulsive force. According to the theory of magnetic fields, the Earth’s poles are similarly charged and exhibit a repulsive effect on one another, resulting in the planet’s rotation.
It is worth noting that a recent scientific finding reveals that the Earth’s magnetic field exerts a force on its inner core, causing it to move in a west to east direction and spin at a faster rate compared to the rest of the planet.
Theory on the Impact of the Sun
The hypothesis regarding the Sun’s radiation is currently deemed the most likely. It is common knowledge that the Sun’s rays warm the Earth’s surface layers including the air, seas, and oceans. However, the heating process is uneven, leading to the formation of air and sea currents.
These currents are responsible for the rotation of the planet when they interact with the solid outer layer. The continents can be seen as turbines that determine the speed and direction of movement. If they are not solid enough, they start to drift, which in turn impacts the speed and direction of rotation.
What is the reason for the Earth’s orbit around the Sun?
The Earth’s orbit around the Sun is caused by the phenomenon known as inertia. According to the prevailing theory of our star’s formation, approximately 4.57 billion years ago, a vast amount of dust materialized in space, which gradually coalesced into a disk-like structure and eventually transformed into the Sun.
The outer particles of this dust began to aggregate together, giving rise to planets. From that point forward, they have been revolving around the star due to inertia and continue to follow the same path to this day.
As per the principles laid out by Sir Isaac Newton, all celestial bodies travel in a linear path. In other words, the planets within our solar system, including Earth, should have veered off into the vastness of outer space a long time ago. However, this is not the case.
The explanation lies in the immense mass of the Sun and the resulting gravitational force it possesses. While the Earth is constantly attempting to move away from the Sun in a straight line, the gravitational forces pull it back, effectively keeping the planet in its orbit and causing it to revolve around the Sun.
Earth’s rotation speed at various latitudes
- 10°: 0.9848×1674=1648.6 km/h;
- 20°: 0.9397×1674=1573.1 km/h;
- 30°: 0.866×1674=1449.7 km/h;
- 40°: 0.766×1674=1282.3 km/h;
- 50°: 0.6428×1674=1076.0 km/h;
- 60°: 0.5×1674=837.0 km/h;
- 70°: 0.342×1674=572.5 km/h;
- 80°: 0.1736×1674=290.6 km/h.
Fascinating fact: Space agencies take advantage of the Earth’s rotation on its axis. As the rotation speed is highest near the equator, less resources are needed to launch spacecraft from zero latitude.
March 13, 1781 marked a historic day in astronomy when William Herschel, an astronomer from England, made a groundbreaking discovery. He identified Uranus as the seventh planet in our solar system. Nearly 150 years later, on March 13, 1930, Clyde Tombaugh, an American astronomer, added another planet to our celestial lineup. He spotted Pluto, the ninth planet in the Solar System. For many years, it was widely accepted that there were nine planets in our Solar System. However, in 2006, the International Astronomical Union made the controversial decision to reclassify Pluto and remove its planet status.
Currently, there are a total of 60 natural moons orbiting Saturn, with the majority being identified through the use of space probes. These moons are primarily composed of a combination of rock and ice. One of the most notable satellites is Titan, which was first observed by Christiaan Huygens in 1655 and is larger in size than the planet Mercury. Titan boasts a diameter of approximately 5,200 kilometers and completes a full orbit around Saturn in a period of 16 days. What sets Titan apart from the other satellites is its remarkably dense atmosphere, which is approximately 1.5 times greater than that of Earth. This atmosphere is primarily comprised of 90% nitrogen, with a significant presence of methane as well.
The International Astronomical Union officially recognized Pluto as a planet in May 1930. At that time, it was believed to have a mass similar to that of Earth. However, it was later discovered that Pluto’s mass is nearly 500 times smaller than Earth’s, and even smaller than the Moon’s. Specifically, Pluto’s mass is 0.22 times the mass of Earth, which is equivalent to 1.2 x 10^22 kg.
Pluto is located at an average distance of 39.44 astronomical units (AU) from the Sun, which is about 5.9 x 10^12 km. Its radius is approximately 1.65 thousand kilometers.
The planet takes 248.6 years to complete one orbit around the Sun and rotates on its axis every 6.4 days.
Pluto is believed to be composed of a combination of rock and ice. It has a thin atmosphere consisting of nitrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide.
In addition to Pluto itself, the planet has three satellites: Charon, Hydra, and Nycta.
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, numerous discoveries were made in the outer region of the solar system. It became evident that Pluto is just one of the many sizable objects within the Kuiper Belt that have been identified thus far. Additionally, one of these objects, Erida, has been found to surpass Pluto in size and weight by 27%. As a result, the notion of classifying Pluto as a planet has been called into question. On August 24, 2006, the XXVI General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) made the decision to reclassify Pluto as a “dwarf planet.”
During the conference, a fresh interpretation of what constitutes a planet was formulated, stipulating that planets are celestial bodies that revolve around a star (and are not stars themselves), possess a shape of hydrostatic equilibrium, and are capable of “clearing” the area in the vicinity of their orbit from other, smaller objects. On the other hand, dwarf planets will be defined as objects that orbit a star, have a shape of hydrostatic equilibrium, but do not “clear” the surrounding space and are not satellites. It is important to note that planets and dwarf planets are distinct categories of celestial objects within the solar system. All other objects that orbit the Sun and are not satellites shall be referred to as small bodies of the Solar System.
The introduction of the concept of “plutoid” was announced by the IAU on June 11, 2008. Plutoids are celestial bodies that orbit the Sun in an orbit with a radius larger than Neptune’s, have enough mass for gravitational forces to shape them into an almost spherical form, and do not clear space around their orbit (meaning that many small objects orbit around them).
Due to the difficulty in determining the shape and its relationship to the class of dwarf planets for distant objects like plutoids, scientists have suggested temporarily categorizing all objects with an absolute asteroidal magnitude (brightness from a distance of one astronomical unit) brighter than +1 as plutoids. If it is later discovered that an object classified as a plutoid is not a dwarf planet, it will lose this status but will retain the assigned name. The dwarf planets Pluto and Erida have been classified as plutoids. Makemake was added to this category in July 2008, and Haumea was added on September 17, 2008.
This information is based on open sources
Let’s continue discussing the fundamental principles of astrology. Today, we will explore the concept of the zodiac and planets. The zodiac serves as the stage where the planets play their roles. These planets move within a narrow strip known as the ecliptic. The zodiacal circle is defined by clear boundaries, which are a result of the planets rotating in the solar system, as well as the Moon orbiting the Sun in the same plane. From our vantage point on Earth, we can observe these celestial bodies within a narrow belt that corresponds to the signs of the Zodiac.
The zodiac consists of 12 equal sections on the ecliptic, each spanning 30 degrees. The Sun, as seen from the celestial sphere, appears to move along the ecliptic. Likewise, all the planets in our solar system follow the same path along the ecliptic.
The zodiac has a starting point, which is the Spring Equinox Point (SEP) on March 21. This marks the beginning of the Aries sign.
The summer solstice (TLS), which marks the longest day of the year, falls on June 21st and also signifies the beginning of the zodiac sign Cancer.
The winter solstice (TLC), which marks the longest night and shortest day, falls on December 21st and also signifies the beginning of the zodiac sign Capricorn.
The Vernal Equinox Point (VEP), which is currently located at the start of the zodiac sign Pisces, was previously positioned at the end of Aquarius.
For nearly 2000 years, this point has been moving across the constellation of Pisces. The time period during which the vernal equinox occurs within a specific constellation is known as the epoch of that constellation. The Vernal Equinox Point gradually shifts along the ecliptic.
Aquarius represents the emblem of unrestricted knowledge, the symbol of astrology. I believe that everything that was once concealed in past eras, sealed away, encrypted, will be divulged to the public, astonishing us with numerous revelations. The complete transition into the Age of Aquarius may occur as early as 2017.
As mentioned in my previous articles, it is important to note that the zodiac signs and their corresponding constellations are distinct entities, just as astrology and astronomy differ.
The cycle of constellations and the cycle of signs are two separate and independent circles. The zodiac signs align with the seasons and are part of the Tropical Zodiac within the solar system, while the constellations belong to the Sidereal Zodiac, which exists beyond the boundaries of our solar system.
Returning to our solar system
The zodiacal circle consists of a series of longitudes, with each sign corresponding to a 30-degree section of longitudes.
At the center of the zodiacal circle lies the Earth, serving as the observer. Different signs of the zodiac transmit energy to the Earth, each with its own unique qualities and properties.
We are not discussing the actual movement of celestial bodies in relation to stars, but rather what is visible to us from our planet. The Sun and the Moon appear to move in one direction in the sky relative to the Earth. The planets orbit the Sun, but their apparent motion in the sky relative to the Earth is more complex, with loops and trajectories. Sometimes it seems like the planets are moving in the opposite direction. This is known as retrograde motion, and it reverses their influence on Earth. The Moon and Sun do not exhibit retrograde motion. Direct planets have a direct impact and immediately manifest themselves in the outside world. Retrograde planets, on the other hand, have a different effect. In the next article, we will discuss what retrograde planets are and their significance. Subscribe to stay updated.
A planet is a celestial body that moves in orbit around a star. So the Sun, despite being classified as a star, can also be considered a planet. Stars are stationary luminaries, while planets are mobile and have their own individual characteristics. Each planet governs a particular zodiac sign and is most powerful when it is in its ruling sign (as depicted in the image above). It is important to note that all planets move counterclockwise in their orbits.
Astrology encompasses a wide range of elements in a horoscope, including zodiac signs, houses, stars, planets, dummy planets, asteroids, arabic points, major aspects, and minor aspects. By considering all of these elements when analyzing a horoscope, it is possible to uncover various events and patterns within it. Each person’s destiny is unique, and by examining the houses of the horoscope, the ten planets, the Black Moon, and major aspects, we can gain insight into their individual destiny and the karmic influences that have shaped it throughout past lives.
Characteristics and Functions of Celestial Bodies
The celestial bodies in our solar system can be categorized into two groups: the inner planets and the outer planets. The inner planets, which include the Moon, Mercury, Venus, and Mars, closely orbit the Sun and do not venture too far away. Mercury has the highest deviation of 28 degrees, while Venus moves away from the Sun by a maximum of approximately 48 degrees. On the other hand, the outer planets consist of Saturn, Uranus, Pluto, Neptune, and Jupiter.
One of the most prominent celestial bodies in our solar system is the Sun, which symbolizes the lion. It represents the desire to be at the center of attention and plays a significant role in shaping a person’s inner self. The Sun’s position in a person’s astrological sign can provide insights into how they perceive and interact with the world. Moreover, it also represents one’s conscious mind, vitality, energy, and overall well-being.
The Moon governs the emotions, moods, well-being, sensitivity, adaptability, inclination to change, parental instinct, ability to show care, attention, and calmness. It is also responsible for the subconscious mind.
Mercury, in the signs of Virgo and Gemini, influences a person’s intellect, rationality, organizational abilities, intellectual capabilities, social connections, and sociability. It is the planet associated with curiosity, and it governs speech and writing.
Venus, in the signs of Libra and Taurus, represents harmony, beauty, a sense of aesthetics, a desire for peace and tranquility, interest in art, accumulation and assimilation, talents and skills, finances and material possessions, as well as love and friendship.
Mars represents the zodiac signs Scorpio and Aries. It symbolizes passion, the desire to possess, and all volitional qualities. Mars also represents energetic traits such as physical strength, energy, aggressiveness, hostility, conflict, determination, courage, enthusiasm, and enterprise.
Jupiter represents the zodiac signs Sagittarius and Pisces. It signifies the desire to go beyond boundaries and expand possibilities. Jupiter brings generosity, optimism, a love for travel, wanderlust, creativity, science, religion, high ideals, and issues of morality and justice.
Saturn represents the zodiac signs Capricorn and Aquarius. It represents purposefulness, the ability to plan, reasoning and logic, the ability to concentrate and focus, depth, and foundation. Saturn also brings the ability to notice and utilize, as well as the desire to envisage everything.
Uranus represents the zodiac signs Aquarius and Capricorn. It symbolizes intuition, foresight, clarification, and insight. Uranus has an informal and unorthodox view of the world, inclines to extremes, brings freedom and independence, and represents perseverance.
Neptune rules over Pisces and Sagittarius, representing all the enigmatic and elusive aspects of life such as mysteries, fantasies, reveries, and dreams. It brings forth a sense of deception and duality in everything it touches. Neptune also grants subtle sensitivity and a deep understanding of psychology. Additionally, it bestows qualities of compassion, empathy, spirituality, mercy, and justice.
On the other hand, Pluto governs Aries, embodying concepts of self-assertion and association. It imparts traits of energy, strength, determination, and the ability to win sympathy. Pluto instills a desire for popularity and grants abundance to those under its influence. It is often associated with being a warlord and holding immense power.
Periods of the passage of luminaries across the zodiac circle.
The Moon, being the fastest planet, completes its journey across the entire zodiac in 27 days and 8 hours. It remains in each sign for approximately 2.5 days.
The Sun, on the other hand, takes a year to complete its passage across the zodiac. It transitions from one sign to another approximately every month, usually around the 22nd or 23rd day.
Mercury and Venus follow a similar pattern to the Sun, taking approximately a year to traverse the zodiac.
Mars, on the other hand, completes its journey across the zodiac in 1 year and 10 months.
Jupiter, with a duration of 11 years and 10 months, spends one year in each sign.
Saturn takes 29.5 years to move through the zodiac.
Uranus, being a slow-moving planet, requires 84 years to complete its passage across the zodiac.
Pluto, the slowest planet, takes a whopping 250 years to traverse the zodiac.
Quality of luminaries.
In the field of astropsychology, it is believed that the planets Sun, Venus, and Jupiter are considered to be positive influences. The Moon and Mercury, on the other hand, are seen as more neutral. Mars, Saturn, Neptune, Uranus, and Pluto, however, are considered to have negative qualities and effects.
The planets in our solar system travel in elliptical orbits around the Sun (as described by Kepler’s laws). There are two groups of planets based on their position in relation to Earth. The planets that orbit closer to the Sun than Earth are referred to as the “lower” planets, which include Mercury and Venus. The planets that orbit farther away from the Sun than Earth are known as the “upper” planets, which include Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.
The arrangement of the planets as they orbit the Sun can be arbitrarily positioned in relation to the Earth and the Sun. This arrangement, known as a configuration, can vary in different ways. Certain configurations are notable and have specific names (see Fig. 19).
The lower planet can be found on the same line as the Sun and the Earth: either between the Earth and the Sun – the lower conjunction or behind the Sun – upper conjunction. During the lower conjunction, the planet may pass across the Sun’s disk (the planet is projected onto the Sun’s disk). However, because the planets’ orbits are not in the same plane, these passages do not occur at every lower conjunction, but rather infrequently. Configurations in which the planet is at its maximum angular distance from the Sun when observed from Earth (these are the most favorable periods for observing the lower planets) are referred to as the greatest elongations, the western and eastern.
The upper planet can also be positioned in alignment with the Earth and the Sun: behind the Sun – conjunction and on the opposite side of the Sun – opposition. The opposition is the most favorable time for observing the upper planet. Configurations in which the angle between the directions from the Earth to the planet and to the Sun is equal to 90 degrees are known as quadratures, western and eastern.
The time interval between two consecutive configurations of the same planet is referred to as its synodic orbital period P, in contrast to the true period of its orbit relative to the stars, which is called the sideric period S. The difference between these two periods arises due to the Earth also orbiting the Sun with a period T. The synodic and sideric periods are related:
10.2 Kepler’s Laws
The principles governing the movement of planets around the Sun were initially established through empirical observations by Kepler and later explained using Newton’s law of universal gravitation.
Law 1: Each planet follows an elliptical path with the Sun located at one of the foci.
Law 2: The rate at which a planet’s radius-vector changes corresponds to equal areas swept out in equal time intervals.
Law 3: The squares of the sidereal periods of the planets’ orbits are proportional to the cubes of the major semi-axes of their orbits (or the cubes of their average distances from the Sun):
While Kepler’s third law is an approximation, a more accurate version known as Kepler’s refined third law was derived from the law of universal gravitation:
Kepler’s law of planetary motion is accurately fulfilled due to the significant difference in mass between the planets and the Sun.
An ellipse is a geometric shape (see Figure 20) that is defined by two focal points, F1 and F2. The sum of the distances from any point on the ellipse to each of the focal points is constant and equal to the major axis of the ellipse. The center of the ellipse is denoted as O, and the distance from the center to the farthest point on the ellipse is called the major semi-axis (a), while the distance from the center to the nearest point is called the minor semi-axis (b). The eccentricity (e) is a value that represents the degree of flattening of the ellipse.
A circle is a special case of an ellipse, where the eccentricity (e) is equal to 0.
The distance between the planet and the Sun changes, ranging from the smallest distance known as perihelion to the greatest distance known as aphelion.
10.3 The Movement of Man-Made Celestial Objects
The movement of man-made celestial objects follows the same laws as natural objects, but there are some notable peculiarities.
One important difference is that the orbits of artificial satellites are usually similar in size to the planet they orbit, so we often refer to the satellite’s height above the planet’s surface (Fig. 21). It is important to note that the center of the planet is the focus of the satellite’s orbit.
For man-made satellites, the concept of first and second space velocity is introduced.
The initial orbital velocity or circular velocity refers to the speed of circular orbital motion close to the surface of a planet at altitude h:
It is the minimum velocity necessary to transform a spacecraft into an artificial satellite of a specific planet. For the Earth’s surface, v k = 7.9 km/sec.
The escape velocity or parabolic velocity is the velocity required for a spacecraft to exit the gravitational field of a given planet in a parabolic orbit:
For Earth, the escape velocity is 11.2 km/sec.
The velocity of a celestial body at any point in an elliptical orbit, at a distance R from the center of gravity, can be calculated using the following formula:
Here, the gravitational constant is expressed as cm^3/(g s^2).
4. Is it possible for Mars to pass across the Sun’s disk? How about Mercury? Or Jupiter?
5. Can Mercury be observed in the eastern sky during the evening? And what about Jupiter?
Solution: The orbits of all planets are approximately aligned in the same plane, causing the planets to move along the celestial sphere along the ecliptic. During opposition, the right ascension of Mars and the Sun differ by approximately 180 degrees. Let’s calculate this for May 19th. On March 21st, the difference is 0 degrees. Each day, the right ascension increases by about 1 degree. From March 21st to May 19th, there are 59 days. Therefore, the difference is 59 degrees. On the celestial map, it can be observed that the ecliptic, at this right ascension, passes through the constellations of Libra and Scorpio, suggesting that Mars was located in one of these constellations.
Solution: The optimal evening visibility of Venus occurs during its eastern elongation. Therefore, the subsequent optimal evening visibility will occur during the following eastern elongation. The time interval between two consecutive eastern elongations is equivalent to the synodic orbital period of Venus and can be easily calculated:
or P =587d. Thus, the next evening visibility of Venus under the same conditions will happen in 587 days, specifically on September 14-15 of next year.
48. (663) To determine the mass of Uranus in Earth mass units, we can compare the motion of the Moon around Earth with the motion of Uranus’s satellite, Titania, which orbits around Uranus with a period of 8d.7 at a distance of 438,000 km. The period of the Moon’s orbit around Earth is 27d.3, and its average distance from Earth is 384,000 km.
Solution: To find a solution, we can utilize Kepler’s third law. This law states that for any body with mass m orbiting another body with mass at an average distance of a and a period of T:
Therefore, we can write this equation for any pair of celestial bodies that orbit each other:
Using Uranus and Titania as the first pair and Earth and the Moon as the second pair, and assuming that the mass of the satellites is negligible compared to the mass of the planets, we can derive the following equation:
49. Assuming the Moon’s orbit is circular and knowing the orbital velocity of the Moon’s motion v L = 1.02 km/s, we can calculate the mass of the Earth.
Method: To solve this problem, we can use the formula for the square of the circular velocity () and substitute the average distance of the Moon from the Earth a L (as mentioned in the previous problem):
50. Let’s calculate the mass of the double star Centauri, which has a period of revolution of the components around a common center of mass T=79 years and a distance between them of 23.5 astronomical units (a.u.). An astronomical unit is defined as the distance from the Earth to the Sun, which is approximately 150 million kilometers.
Approach: The approach to this problem is similar to the approach used to solve the problem of the mass of Uranus. However, when determining the masses of double stars, we compare them to the Sun-Earth pair and express their masses in terms of solar masses.
51. (1210) Determine the linear velocities of a spacecraft at perigee and apogee when it is flying 227 km above the surface of the ocean above Earth at perigee and the major axis of its orbit is 13,900 km. The radius and mass of the Earth are 6371 km and 6.0 10 27 g.
Solution: Let’s calculate the distance from the satellite to the Earth at apogee (the furthest distance from the Earth). To do this, we need to know the distance at perigee (the closest distance from the Earth) and calculate the eccentricity of the satellite’s orbit using the formula () and then determine the desired distance using the formula (32). We get h a = 931 km.
This is a planetary system, with a bright star at its core, serving as a source of energy, heat, and light – the Sun.
According to a particular hypothesis, the Sun came into being alongside the Solar System approximately 4.5 billion years ago, following the explosion of one or more supernovae. The solar system initially existed as a cloud of gas and dust particles, which, in motion and influenced by their own mass, coalesced into a disk where a new star, the Sun, and our entire solar system came to be.
The Sun occupies the central position in the solar system, encircled by nine major planets. Due to the Sun’s displacement from the center of the planetary orbits, the planets move closer or further away in their orbits over the course of one revolution around the Sun.
The planets can be divided into two groups:
The terrestrial group of planets: These planets, which have rocky surfaces and are closest to the Sun, are characterized by their small size.
The massive planets: These planets are of considerable size and are primarily composed of gas. They are known for their distinctive rings made up of ice dust and numerous rocky fragments.
However, one planet stands apart from the rest. Despite its position within the solar system, it does not belong to any specific group. This planet is located at a significant distance from the Sun and has a remarkably small diameter of only 2320 km, which is approximately half the diameter of Mercury.
The celestial bodies of our solar system
Let’s embark on a captivating journey to explore the celestial bodies of our solar system, starting with their arrangement in relation to the Sun. We will also delve into the fascinating realm of their main satellites, as well as other cosmic entities such as comets, asteroids, and meteorites that inhabit our vast planetary system.
Rings and satellites of Jupiter: Europa, Io, Ganymede, Callisto, and many more.
Jupiter, the largest planet in our solar system, boasts a family of 16 satellites, each possessing its own distinctive characteristics.
Saturn’s rings and moons: Titan, Enceladus, and others.
Distinctive rings can be found not only around Saturn, but also around other massive planets. Saturn’s rings are particularly prominent due to the billions of small particles that orbit the planet. In addition to its rings, Saturn has 18 moons, including Titan, which has a diameter of 5000km, making it the largest moon in the solar system.
The rings and moons of Uranus: Titania, Oberon and others.
Uranus has 17 moons and, like other giant planets, is surrounded by thin rings that have minimal ability to reflect light. These rings were discovered quite by accident in 1977, as they are difficult to observe.
Neptune’s rings and satellites: Triton, Nereid, and others.
Before the Voyager 2 spacecraft explored Neptune, only two of its satellites were known – Triton and Nereid. An interesting fact is that Triton has a retrograde orbit, and it also has peculiar volcanoes that eject nitrogen gas like geysers, creating a dark-colored mass that extends for many kilometers into the atmosphere. During its mission, Voyager 2 discovered six additional satellites orbiting Neptune.
Today, there is no doubt that the Earth revolves around the Sun. In the not-so-distant past, people believed that the Earth was the center of our galaxy, but now it is clear that the opposite is true.
Today we will discuss the reasons behind the Earth and other planets orbiting the Sun.
The rationale for planetary revolution around the Sun
Both the Earth and the rest of the planets in our solar system follow their own distinct paths around the Sun. Although their speeds and trajectories may vary, they all remain gravitationally bound to our primary star.
Our objective is to comprehend, in a simple and straightforward manner, why the Sun has assumed the role of the universe’s focal point, exerting its gravitational pull on all other celestial bodies.
The Sun, being the largest entity in our galaxy, exerts a gravitational force that is many times greater than the combined mass of all other objects. This force of universal gravitation, a fundamental principle in physics, states that bodies with less mass are attracted to those with greater mass. It is because of this force that all planets, satellites, and other celestial bodies are drawn towards the Sun, which is the largest among them.
Interestingly, the same gravitational force also affects objects on Earth. For instance, if we throw a tennis ball into the air, it falls back down due to the attraction between the ball and the surface of our planet.
Having understood the principle of planetary attraction towards the Sun, a natural question arises: why don’t these planets fall onto the star’s surface but instead orbit around it along their own trajectories?
Furthermore, there is a rather accessible explanation for this phenomenon. The crux of the matter is that the Earth, along with other celestial bodies, undergoes continuous motion. To avoid delving into complex formulas and scientific jargon, let me provide another straightforward example. Once again, envision a tennis ball and suppose you possess the capability to propel it forward with an unimaginable force surpassing human limits. As the ball hurtles forward, it simultaneously descends due to the gravitational pull exerted by the Earth. However, it is worth noting that the Earth is spherical in shape. Consequently, the ball will have the capacity to orbit our planet along a specific trajectory indefinitely, being perpetually drawn towards the Earth’s surface while traversing at such a high velocity that its trajectory will consistently encircle the circumference of the globe.
